On a warm August day in 636 CE, the Arab army
under Khalid ibn al-Walid challenged the supremacy of the mighty Byzantine Empire. The two armies stared each other down across
the grassy field of the Yarmouk plateau, while the vultures circled above. One Arab warrior stepped forward, crying out:
“I am the killer of Romans, I am the scourge sent upon you!” The battle that would change the course of
history is about the take place… After Prophet Muhammad’s death in 632, the First Caliph Abu Bakr coordinated military campaigns, over vast territories of Arabia, turning the peninsula
into a stronghold of Islam. This expansion was spearheaded by battle-hardened
and experienced commanders, most notably Khalid ibn al-Walid. the most dependable commander for the Prophet and his successors. The Caliph’s goal to bring all Arab tribal
groups under Rashidun rule, including those in the steppes and cities of Iraq and Syria, led to the first direct clashes with the Byzantines and Sassanians. The two empires had been at war with each
other for decades and the prolonged conflict exhausted the two super-powers. The Byzantines formally restored control over
their territories, but decades of war brought political and economic strife across their
territory in the Levant, and the Imperial authority wasn’t yet fully re-established
beyond the Dead Sea in the south-east. Foreign policy changed as well. The Empire stopped subsidizing many tribal
groups that fought on their side, deeming this financial expenditure was no longer needed now that the war against the Sassanians was won. Instead, they began building defensive coalitions
with nomadic groups of northern Hejaz to guard Syria from the southeast, extending their
political control into Arabia, thereby directly threatening the Muslims who sought to unite
Arab tribes under the banner of Islam. Hence it was imperative for Abu Bakr to assert
Rashidun influence in the direction of Syria before the Byzantines could make headway in
pulling this area into their sphere of influence. In early 633, four Arab armies entered Byzantine
territory, commanded by Amr ibn al-As, Shurahbil ibn Hasana, Yazid ibn Abi Sufyan, and Abu
Ubayda. They were ordered not to attack, besiege or
raze any major cities. The objective of this initial phase of the
campaign was to occupy the countryside inhabited predominantly by the Arabic-speaking population,
many of whom would join the Islamic cause, thus swelling Rashidun ranks and providing
valuable logistical support. These early operations laid the groundwork
for the upcoming invasion and, ironically, Abu Bakr’s focus on the countryside would
fool the Byzantines into perceiving the Muslims as mere raiders, and therefore no significant
Imperial forces were assembled to combat the threat in early 633. Meanwhile in the east, Caliph’s orders were
the same – bring the Arab tribes of Iraq into the fold. From the south Abu Bakr dispatched Khalid,
his most trusted commander, in early spring. As the army assembled, the core of Khalid’s
force of loyal volunteers was augmented by troops from several tribes across Arabia. Some of these tribes fought against Medina
in the Ridda Wars, but some sections remained loyal, and it was these troops that now reinforced
the campaign against the Sassanians. What followed was one of Khalid’s greatest
strategic achievement. The swift conquest of Sassanian lands west
of the Euphrates in a series of battles would be a display of true tactical genius. With his versatile implementation of the Indirect Approach, Khalid would attack opposing armies from unexpected directions with multiple rapid flanking maneuvers. Furthermore, he was one of only a few commanders in history who used Double Envelopment to encircle and destroy armies larger than his own, launching perfectly timed cavalry attacks on the opponents flanks. This daring war of movement reflected his
lightning-fast conquest of the territory west of the Euphrates. Then, as he laid the groundwork for Rashidun
administration and planned the offensive into central Iraq and the Sassanian capital, a
message arrived from the Caliph – Khalid was to urgently march to Syria to take command
of the invasion of the Byzantine Empire. In April 634 he departed Iraq with a small
force of veterans who’s loyalty to Islam was absolute, striking out across the desert
towards Syria – a most perilous of journeys. The troops couldn’t carry enough water to
last until they reached Syria, so Khalid forced twenty of the camels to drink large quantities
of water, then tied their mouths so they wouldn’t spoil it by eating or chewing their cud. Camels would then be slaughtered daily and
the preserved water in their stomachs would quench the thirst of the troops. The march through largely waterless country
lasted for SIX days, becoming one of Khalid’s most famous military feats. Upon entering Syria he moved south-west to
meet with the three Muslim armies near Damascus, capturing forts and towns along the way. Byzantine garrisons were caught completely
by surprise, not expecting that Muslim troops could enter their territory from an inhospitable
desert. So far the Empire relied on a system of forts
along the border that would relay information about enemy troop movements to the interior,
giving the Imperial army time to mobilize and respond to the threat. The prevailing mindset was that any attack
that penetrated into the interior would eventually be repulsed, thus any loss of territory would
only be temporary. But by now the Muslims gained full control
over rural areas in the south east and with Khalid’s arrival the Caliph turned his full
attention to the conquest of important Syrian towns. Bostra fell first, and the four Muslim armies
marched towards Palestine to join Amr ibn al-As, who was facing a large concentration of Byzantine troops commanded by Emperor Heraclius’ brother Theodore. The Byzantines reportedly recruited Bedouin-Christian
spies and were able to anticipate the movement of the Muslim army, managing to position themselves
for the upcoming attack. The Battle of Ajnadayn, the first major engagement,
was bitterly fought. Many prominent Muslims fell as martyrs on
the field of battle, but under Khalid’s leadership the Arabs managed to wipe out the
presence of the Byzantine field army in Syria and were now advancing north. Theodore retreated to join the emperor at
Emesa, while remnants of the Imperial army fled in disorder to nearby walled cities and
forts, with many of the survivors converging on Pella, joining the garrison that was stationed
there. Alarmed by Khalid’s rapid advance, Heraclius
dispatched two contingents to fortify key roads south of Damascus, to give the city
time to prepare for a siege that was soon coming, and then subsequently headed for Antioch to begin preparations to deal with the Arab threat. But the Byzantines were not able to hold Khalid’s
advance for long, as the Muslim army outmaneuvered their entrenched positions and proceeded to
surround Damascus two days later. The siege lasted for 20 days and, after a
Byzantine relief force was defeated, the city capitulated. But then came news from Medina that Caliph
Abu Bakr died about a month earlier, making Umar ibn al-Khattab, Khalid’s cousin, his
successor. Aware of Khalid’s popularity, the deeply
religious Umar demoted him and placed Abu Ubayda in charge of the Muslim army, aiming
to show that no matter who commands the troops, it is Allah alone who gives victory on the
battlefield. Under the command of the more cautious Abu
Ubayda, the Muslim advance continued at a slower pace over the coming months. He divided the army in two, advancing north
with the majority of the troops, while sending two armies to capture Palestine, where several
strong Byzantine garrisons remained in the rear during the initial rapid Muslim advance. Meanwhile in Antioch, Heraclius wasn’t sitting
idle. He displayed the military might of the Byzantine
Empire as five armies assembled and began their march back into Syria from multiple
directions, under the overall command of Vahan, an Armenian general. Furthermore, Heraclius sent word to all major
cities, reminding the people of the Byzantine superiority after recent victories against
the Sassanians. The message was clear - that Syria belonged
to the Empire was a fact of life after centuries of Byzantine rule and the current situation, while alarming, was a setback that will be dealt with. Heraclius’ army was prepared to defeat the
Arabs in a decisive battle or destroy their separate armies piece meal. Upon learning of the initial movement of enemy
troops Khalid immediately recognized that the Muslim position in the north will be surrounded
by the numerically superior Byzantine army. He urged Abu Ubayda to abandon northern Syria
and retreat south to a stronger position where the rest of their forces could join them. After some consideration, Abu Ubayda ordered
the army to march south. Messengers were sent to the two commanders
in Palestine to meet with the main army on the vast plains north-east of Lake Tiberias,
which offered plenty of fodder for the horses and were conducive to cavalry maneuvers. And, just as Khalid had suspected, four Imperial
armies marched on Emesa, which would’ve pinned the Arabs in the north, while another
Byzantine army was to re-capture Damascus and cut off their line of retreat – the
Muslim army withdrew just in time. Meanwhile, Yazdegerd negotiated with Heraclius
to mount an offensive from the east. However, the Sassanian army would not be ready
in time for a simultaneous attack. Back west, faced against a massive Byzantine
army, Abu Ubayda sent word to Caliph Umar to send all available reinforcements to Syria. And, as the Muslim armies met, scouts reported that a strong Byzantine garrison gathered at Caesarea. This made encamping on the plains near Lake
Tiberias a dangerous proposition, as the Arab army could now potentially be attacked on
two sides. Abu Ubayda again heeded Khalid’s advice
to move the army to a stronger position on the eastern end of the Yarmouk plateau. With the battle looming, Khalid was recognized
as the ablest field commander and was given temporary control of the troops, while Abu
Ubayda remained in overall strategic command. And the Byzantine army followed close behind… Terrain would have a major impact on the course
of the battle. The Yarmouk plateau is predominantly an undulated
flat plain, dotted with rocky outcrops. Rivers Yarmuk, Ruqqad, ‘Allan and Harir
slice deep into the level plateau, creating deep gorges with steep cliffs. The grassy plain offered enough fodder and
several springs to supply both armies. And the Byzantines were not in a rush. Vahan was instructed by the emperor to try
and pay off the Muslims to go back to Arabia, or at the very least to stall negotiations
until the Sassanians were ready to attack in Iraq. Jabalah and Gregory did much of the mediation, but as the talks dragged on for up to three months, reinforcements sent by Umar began
arriving. Concerned that he might lose the numerical
advantage, Vahan took matters into his own hands and asked to negotiate with Khalid in
person. By his own words, the Armenian general regarded
the Arabs as nothing more than "impoverished, hungry, wretched Bedouins" and he offered
Khalid food and gold to leave Byzantine lands. Unimpressed by Vahan's condescendence, Khalid
responded: “It is not hunger that brought us here…”, calling on the Christian general
to embrace Islam in exchange for peace, adding: "If you refuse there can only be war between
us... and you will face men who love death as you love life". Enraged, Vahan fired a warning: “Better
men tried to take our lands but were all defeated.” Negotiations were over… Vahan positioned the main Byzantine camp near
al-Yaqusah from where one of the main Roman roads connecting Egypt and Syria could be
defended. He anchored his battle line to the gorge in
the south and arrayed his troops along the ‘Allan river, stretching to the town of
Jabiyah in the north. On his left flank he placed the Slavic infantry,
commanded by Qanatir, a Slavic prince. In the center, Jabalah commanded the Ghassanid
contingent, while Dairjan led the Armenians. Gregory commanded the experienced Greek infantry
on the right flank. It is said that the last Roman legion, the
Macedonian 5th, was under his command. Archers were mixed with the infantry. Cavalry contingents were supporting each of
the four divisions of infantry. Byzantine army numbered around 40,000. Across the field, Khalid stretched his infantry
to match the length of the Byzantine line, with the left flank anchored on the gorge
in the south, while his right flank reached the vicinity of the town of Nawa. He placed Amr in charge of the right flank,
Shurahbil and Abu Ubayda in the center, and Yazid on the left, with archers mixed in with
the infantry. Cavalry contingents were positioned to prevent
breakthroughs, while Khalid took command of the handpicked cavalry reserve. Arab army was around 25,000 strong. The long battle line, stretching around 10km
across the plain, would test the leadership of commanders on both sides. Early on August 15th, the two armies stared
each other down. One Arab warrior came forward, dropped his
shield and removed his armor, crying out: “I am the death of the Pale faces, I am
the killer of Romans, I am the scourge sent upon you, I am Zarrar Ibn al-Azwar!” Several Byzantine officers challenged the
Muslim champion. In a matter of minutes Zarrar cut them down
in single combat. More Muslim champions stepped forward, and
as the dueling spectacle continued Byzantine troops witnessed the slaying of many of their
officers. Then, at noon, Vahan ordered the army to advance. Using his numerical advantage to extend the
front, he forced Khalid to stretch his infantry thin, and he planned to probe the Muslim line
for any weak spots that he could punch through. As the Byzantine army closed the distance, Vahan ordered a third of his infantry to advance on the enemy. The fighting was not too intensive, as both
sides tested each other’s resolve. Nevertheless, Vahan was surprised by the determination
of Arab troops. He observed that the deep gorge to the south
would restrict cavalry maneuvers and offer some protection to the Muslim left flank,
while the terrain to the north was open, leaving the Muslim right exposed. Khalid was also aware of this problem and
he positioned himself slightly closer to the right wing so that he could reinforce it quickly,
if necessary. As the day began drawing to a close, Vahan
broke off the attack and ordered his troops back into position on the ‘Allan river. During the night both commanders contemplated
their next move. Khalid knew that a frontal assault against
a better equipped and more numerous enemy would be dangerous, especially when supported
by contingents of Byzantine heavy cavalry. Vahan, meanwhile, was ready to attack and
break the Muslims. Early next morning, the Byzantine commander
committed all of his troops forward. He intended to catch the Muslims unprepared
during their morning prayers. But Khalid expected this. During the previous night he ordered the construction of outposts in front of his line to prevent any surprise attacks. Despite losing the element of surprise, Vahan
remained confident in his drilled veterans. The Byzantine commander planned to apply steady
pressure against the Muslim center in order to tie down as many of Khalid’s troops as
possible, while focusing the main thrust of his attack on the flanks where he expected
to overwhelm and drive the enemy from the field with his superior numbers. As the two armies clashed, Khalid’s men
held their ground in the center against the stalled Byzantine advance. But for his troops on the flanks, the situation was different… Qanatir attacked Khalid’s right flank in
force. The outnumbered Muslim infantry held fast
but were pushed back. Amr ordered his cavalry to check the Byzantine
advance in order to buy time for the infantry. The cavalry counterattack blunted the Byzantine
charge, but Qanatir kept pushing the Muslims back toward their camp. Women from the camp rallied, and some joined
the fighting. They hobbled the camels around the camp, thus
providing additional protection. A desperate struggle ensued as the Byzantines
could not dislodge the determined Muslim fighters. Qanatir’s heavy cavalry bogged down as their
horses balked at the smell of aggressive camels, refusing to respond to the commands of their
riders. In close quarters the legs and bellies of
the partially armored Byzantine horses now became exposed and many of the heavily armored
riders were pulled down from their saddles. Qanatir could not sustain the attack any longer… … With Vahan’s attack against the Muslim
right flank broken, Khalid seized the moment to exploit the gap that had opened up between
Qanatir and the Byzantine center. He ordered Amr to send his cavalry regiment
and attack Qanatir’s flank from the north. With incoming cavalry support Amr ordered
a general advance. The three-pronged attack forced Qanatir to
abandon his advanced position and retreat towards the main Byzantine line. By timing his flanking maneuver to perfection
Khalid managed to push the Byzantines back with fewer troops. Had it not been for the disciplined retreat
of Qanatir’s experienced Slavic infantry the Byzantine flank could’ve collapsed entirely. But the situation on the Muslim left was considerably
more serious… … With much of Khalid’s mounted units
currently on the right flank, Yazid’s position was being overrun. Byzantine cavalry broke through the ranks
and pushed towards the Muslim camp. Gregory’s infantry slowly ground their way
forward as Yazid’s outnumbered infantry could not stop them. As they fell back to the camp, Yazid’s troops
were met with a barrage of insults and rocks thrown at them by the ferocious Arab women
who urged them to not let the enemy defeat them, with some of the women taking part in
the defense of the camp. Yazid was finally able to stabilize his line
near the camp, temporarily stemming the Byzantine assault. Just as Vahan’s plan appeared to be
succeeding on the Muslim left, Khalid again showed his ability to adapt quickly. With the right flank stabilized he dashed
across the battlefield to aid the embattled Yazid. He detached a cavalry contingent under the
command of Dharar ibn al-Azwar, ordering him to round the Byzantine center. This decision proved crucial, for when Dharar
struck the flank of the Byzantine center, he fixed them in place, preventing reinforcements
from reaching Gregory to support his push against the Muslim left. But most importantly this maneuver gave the
impression to the Greeks that they were being outflanked, damaging their morale. Further on the left flank Khalid came to Yazid’s
aid, hitting Gregory’s division. The Greeks gave ground under pressure, suffering
particularly heavy casualties. During the fighting in the center, Dharar’s
troops killed the Byzantine commander Dairjan, who fought with his troops in the front. Finally, as dusk approached the two exhausted
armies ceased hostilities for the day. For Vahan, losing one of his key lieutenants
was an enormous blow and the speed of Khalid’s counterattacks exposed weaknesses in his plan,
forcing him to change tack. The battle resumed with the Byzantines again
advancing on the Muslim line. This time, however, Vahan focused mainly on
Khalid’s right flank where the Byzantine heavy cavalry could do more damage. Bitter fighting ensued as the Byzantine heavy cavalry charge outmatched Arab light mounted units. Amr’s division fell back, followed shortly
by Shurahbil. As Jabalah’s flank slowly became exposed,
Khalid sprang into action at this critical moment, charging into the gap towards the
Ghassanid flank. Finally, Amr managed to rally his forces and
re-engage. Shurahbil too reorganized after taking some
losses and went on the offensive. The fighting developed into a bloodbath as
the outflanked Ghassanids took a heavy beating and retreated in disarray. Seeing Jabalah disengaging, Qanatir too withdrew
in good order. Khalid’s well timed flanking attack again
stopped the Byzantines. The next day, Vahan persisted with the same
battle plan. Qanatir lead the Slavs against Amr’s division. Jabalah’s Ghassanid division, now reinforced
by Vahan’s Armenians, advanced on Shurahbil. As soon as they met the Byzantine charge,
the Muslims were hard-pressed. Arab light cavalry was especially having trouble
holding the push of the Imperial cataphracts. Meanwhile, Vahan ordered the Armenians and
Greeks forward, at a slower pace. Khalid now feared a general Byzantine assault
along the entire line. He understood that, considering the losses
on the previous day, he no longer had the numbers to repulse a general advance by Imperial
troops, and his cavalry reserve would not be able to reinforce both flanks at the same
time. To avert disaster, Khalid sent Abu Ubayda
and Yazid forward, aiming to stall Vahan’s advance and buy some time for his troops on
the right. He then hastily rushed towards the gaps that
opened between Shurahbil and Amr, as their lines started buckling under the weight of
the Byzantine attack. Meanwhile, the Muslim left held the initial
Byzantine push, but Vahan reinforced the attack with horse archers, subjecting the Arabs to
ceaseless barrages of arrows. The point-blank volleys caused such losses
to Abu Ubayda’s and Yazid’s divisions that the incident became known as the “Day
of Lost Eyes”. Unable to withstand the storm of arrows, the
Muslim left retreated to get out of range of Byzantine archers. On the other side of the battlefield Amr rallied
his forces and halted Qanatir’s advance, while Khalid shored up Shurahbil’s ranks
and pressed Jabalah’s division. The Ghassanids fought stubbornly, but having
taken heavy losses they slowly gave ground. Now that he was committed on the right, Khalid’s
worst fear was realized - Gregory ordered the general advance of his division, sensing
that the Arabs were shaken by the losses they took from Byzantine arrow volleys. Sure enough, Yazid’s battered division gave
way, with Abu Ubayda barely holding Vahan’s Armenians. With the Rashidun left in dire straits, Arab
women from the camp picked up weapons and joined the fighting. The desperate last stand of the women inspired the Muslims to hold their ground against all odds. Meanwhile on the right, the Byzantines finally
retreated after several hours of fighting, and the rest of Vahan’s line soon followed. The fourth day of the battle was devastating
for the Arabs, particularly the left wing. But incredibly they managed to hold back the
Byzantines. Next morning, Vahan unexpectedly sent an emissary,
offering a truce. Arab commanders met for an impromptu war council. Some argued to accept the truce, seeing it
as a victory after fighting a much larger army deep within enemy territory, while others
noted that the men are tired, wounded and vastly outnumbered. The consensus was to leave and come back to fight another day. Khalid listened to his comrades, then stood
up saying: “The past four days tested our resolve." "Now is not the time to concede, now is the
time to be decisive!” He argued that the strategy was to be on the defensive, wear out the enemy, then counter attack. And now he sensed that the Byzantines lost
heart and that Vahan was trying to buy time to raise morale of his troops. The time to attack is now! There would be
no truce... During the night Khalid inspected the troops. Wounded soldiers leaned on each other, but
even in the face of such overwhelming odds their spirit never wavered. Determined to go on the offensive, the Muslim
commander sent Dharar with 500 riders on a wide flanking maneuver to capture a key bridge
across the Raqqad gorge that served as the main line of communication between the Byzantine
army and their camp… The fightback has begun… As the sun rose on the next day, from the
Byzantine line a hulking figure trotted out on his war horse into the no man's land. It was Gregory, the commander of the Byzantine
right flank, reputed to be a formidable fighter. Abu Ubayda answered the challenge. As the overall strategic commander of Arab
forces in Syria, before leaving he told Khalid: "If I don't return you shall resume command
of the army after the battle, until the Caliph decides otherwise". And with that the tall, slim figure of Abu
Ubayda, a man in his 50's, rode out to meet Gregory. The two met in the middle, both excellent
in single combat. Circling each other they traded blows for
several minutes, as both armies anxiously watched. Then Gregory ran back towards his line - a
trick designed to fool Abu Ubayda into lowering his guard. As the Arab general caught up with him, in
a split second Gregory turned to strike, Abu Ubayda ducked to evade the blow, striking
the Greek general across the neck with his blade. Gregory dropped his sword and slumped from
his horse. Moments later Khalid ordered the Muslim line
forward! Having spent most of the night reorganizing
the troops, Khalid left a token force of cavalry behind the infantry divisions, spreading their
formations to make it appear to the Byzantines like the disposition of the Arab army remained
the same as it was during the previous days, and he took all of the remaining cavalry,
hiding it in the shallow dips of the plateau. Some of the men in the Byzantine line could
hardly believe that, despite such heavy losses, the Muslim army went on the offensive. As the clash in the center erupted, the Arabs
pressed hard. They were determined to drive the enemy back,
but their substantial numerical disadvantage meant that they could not sustain this battle
of attrition for long. Just as Vahan’s troops managed to slow the momentum of the Muslim advance, Khalid sprung his trap. From the gentle dips in the terrain 8,000
riders galloped forward. By amassing most of his cavalry Khalid planned
to surround the Byzantine left flank. Knowing that time was of the essence he urged his men to ride fast and without hesitation. Speed would decide the outcome of the
battle. Busy with commanding the troops in the center,
Vahan glanced to the left and saw the ominous cloud of dust. He scrambled to send his cavalry to cover
the flank, realizing that the Muslim commander has outwitted him. In full gallop Khalid surged past Amr’s division and began to envelop Qanatir’s Slavs. The rest of Arab riders followed their general
as he guided them around Byzantine ranks. Over his left shoulder Khalid could see the
fierce fighting in the center as he pushed his steed to go faster. Qanatir’s and Jabalah’s line began folding,
as they braced for the impact of the Arab cavalry. As the Muslim riders smashed into Vahan’s
left, Khalid pierced an enemy soldier, breaking his lance in two. He drew his sword, striking anyone in a red
tunic. The horses twisted and turned, wreaking havoc
among the Byzantine infantry. Jabalah and the Ghassanids disengaged and
started fleeing. But to their horror they realized that the
bridge across the Ruqqad, their main escape route, was blocked. Jabalah’s troops dispersed as each man tried
to save himself. Qanatir fought on bravely, but the Slavic
division was surrounded and stood no chance. The entire Byzantine line began collapsing. Shocked by Khalid’s rapid maneuver, the Imperial heavy cavalry tried in vain to stem the tide. The noose was tightening as Vahan’s army
was being pushed back towards the cliffs. The Armenian general barked orders, and while some Byzantine units kept their cohesion, others were in total
disarray. Unable to cope with the rapid movement of
the Arab light cavalry, Byzantine cataphracts were attacked on all sides. Seeing that the situation was hopeless they fled, abandoning the infantry to their fate. Khalid steadied his steed, closed his eyes
and whispered a prayer of gratitude. Though it was not immediately apparent, he
knew that the battle was won. Vahan’s army was cornered against the steep
cliffs of the Raqqad and Yarmouk gorges, and over the next several hours Byzantine troops
were systematically killed. Such was their desperation that hundreds,
if not thousands of Imperial soldiers jumped to their deaths from the cliffs to escape
the wrath of Khalid’s troops. On that day the Rashidun army achieved a victory
that would change the course of history forever… The Battle of Yarmouk was certainly the battle
of the century and one of the most pivotal battles in world history. The juggernaut that was the Byzantine army
was made up of disciplined warriors, who probably thought they can easily outmatch the Arabic
desert army. Unfortunately for them, in Khalid ibn al-Walid
they faced possibly the greatest military mind of the age. In just a few short years he restructured
the rag-tag Arab forces into an army that would conquer half of the known world. On August 20th 636, at Yarmouk, after six grueling days
only one side was left standing. Islam stepped onto the
world stage...
