As the summer sun rose above the flat
expanses of northern Transoxiana, figures appeared on the road,
silhouetted against the morning sky. The ground trembled as the armies of the Abbasid Caliphate and the Tang Empire of China marched along the banks
of the Talas river. What started as a frontier dispute
escalated into a regional conflict that will now be decided
on the battlefield, nearby. War was to come,
and now it was here… Following the death of
Prophet Muhammad, the swiftness of the Arab conquest
was nothing short of astonishing. In less than two decades
the Eastern Roman Empire was deprived of its' lands
in the Middle East, and the Sassanian Empire
was conquered entirely. But, further afield, Central Asia
was much harder to subdue, then settled by sedentary
Iranian peoples, divided into a number of small kingdoms,
principalities, and city states, as well as Turkic tribes roaming the steppes
and the expanses between urban centers. Instead of fighting a single enemy, the Arab armies had to reduce the petty states one by one, facing determined resistance and contending
with frequent revolts and setbacks over the next 50 years... By then, caliphal rule had passed
on to the Umayyad dynasty, which saw the appointment of Qutayba ibn Muslim as governor of Khorasan, an excellent administrator and military commander, who was able make significant inroads, and through clever policies of
recruiting local Iranians into his army, as well as integrating some of the petty rulers into the power structure of the Caliphate, he was able to greatly pacify the region, of which Transoxiana was of greatest importance. These were some of the wealthiest lands in the world during medieval times, thanks to extensive trade with China,
mostly in silk and jade, and with Europe, in goods such as
amber, furs, honey, and walrus ivory, making Transoxiana one of the most strategically important areas on the planet. But… with these territorial acquisitions
the Caliphate entered the sphere of interest of the Tang Empire of China. For several centuries China made its’ presence
felt in Central Asia, and during the reign of Tang Emperor Xuanzong, its’ westward
ambitions grew in scale. Xuanzong was a diligent and astute ruler who,
with the help of his famous three chancellors, is credited for bringing Tang China to the
pinnacle of culture and power. Most notably, his military reforms saw the
replacement of the Fubing System with the Jiedushi Military Command. Inefficient massive conscript armies were
replaced by a multicultural well-drilled volunteer corps, enabling the Tang Empire to assemble
a 500,000 strong professional army, in just a few years. These reforms were what propelled
the Chinese westward push. Although Tang armies rarely ventured
too far west beyond the Tarim Basin, rare military interventions were launched to pacify disloyal petty kings and princes of Central Asia. But it was mostly through strong economic
and diplomatic ties that China established a firm foothold in the region, which persisted
even after the Umayyad conquest, with numerous city-states continuing
to send embassies to China, receiving pompous, mostly symbolic
titles from the Emperor. This reliance on “soft power” and the
establishment of trade agreements, as well as nominal protectorates and vassalships,
enabled the Tang Empire to maintain strong influence in Central Asia without the need
for military conquest. At this time, the biggest threat to China’s
westward ambitions was the powerful Tibetan Empire which successfully challenged the Tang
for control over the Tarim Basin, a mostly desert wasteland dotted with strategically important urban towns and cities along the Silk Road. The military importance of these
urban oases was equally significant, regarded by the Chinese as
the “Gateway to the Western Regions” that the Imperial armies could pass through to reach Central Asia. In addition, Turkic Uighurs to the north also posed a significant threat to Tang interests in this period, but through careful diplomacy,
tributes, and Xuanzong’s reforms, by 728 AD the Chinese managed
to establish full control over this vital region. It was during this time of Tang
consolidation in the vast Tarim Basin that the unstoppable Umayyad armies
pushed east into Central Asia. The power of the Caliphate was such that they were able to overthrow a Chinese-backed Sogdian ruler of the Principality of Ferghana and
install a puppet regime, right on the Tang Empire’s doorstep. However, Umayyad superiority, rarely challenged
before, would meet its’ match, as the Celestial Empire moved
to militarily suppress the Arab expansion. An intervention force of 10,000 troops marched
towards the Islamic controlled Ferghana, successfully defeating the Umayyad puppet-ruler, before
massacring three entire Sogdian metropolises as punishment, and restoring the pro-Chinese
regime back onto the throne of Ferghana. The Caliphate responded by allying themselves
with the Tibetan Empire and the Turgesh Khaganate, and just a year later, a combined force struck
east, aiming to destroy the “Four Garrisons of Anxi”, from where the Tang controlled
the Tarim Basin. This invasion, if successful, would’ve crippled
China’s westward military ambitions… But the Chinese dealt a massive defeat to
the Umayyads at the town of Aksu, almost completely
destroying their army. In the aftermath of the battle, Turgesh tribes,
formerly allied to the Umayyads, switched their allegiance and launched attacks from
the north, while the Tang army marched against the Caliphate from the east, effectively expelling
the Arabs from Transoxiana. “Never again”, the Chinese thought, would
the Arabs be able to meddle in the affairs of the Tang dynasty. While the Umayyads made limited efforts to re-establish their rule in the lost eastern territories, their main focus shifted west,
away from the region, and with this a power vacuum was created that allowed the House of Abbas to slowly build prominence in the remote, but important
region of Khorasan. In the ensuing decades, the Abbasids carefully
intrigued against the Umayyads, recruiting followers from discontented
and dispossessed locals, eventually raising the banner of revolution. The revolt spread quickly under military leadership
of Abu Muslim, a commander in the service of the Abbasids, culminating with the victory
in the Battle of Zab, which effectively ended Umayyad rule and led to the proclamation of
the first Abbasid Caliph. With most of their power base located in Persia,
the new regime shifted their military focus east, recognizing the importance of the
phenomenally rich lands of Transoxiana. But… the cunning Emperor Xuanzong exploited
the instability within the Caliphate during the three years long Abbasid Revolution,
by launching a three pronged attack. This time, however, the Tang armies were ordered to establish a firm military foothold in Central Asia. With the Korean General Gao Xianzhi in command,
the Emperor subjugated Tibet’s strategically valuable allies, eroding their presence in
the area, and vassalized roughly 72 city states in the important mountainous regions of the
Pamir and Hindukush. With these developments the Chinese now directly
challenged the Abbasids for control over Central Asia. In the turmoil, what triggered the conflict
between the two empires was a local dispute between the petty kingdoms
of Ferghana and Chach. The king of Ferghana, having been under heavy
Chinese influence for the past 35 years, asked his overlords for assistance. Gao heeded their cries for help and moved
to subjugate the Chachean kingdom. The capital city was besieged and the Tang
general promised its’ king safe passage… But once the king accepted surrender
and left the safety of his city walls, he was treacherously
captured and beheaded. His son, however, escaped and managed to get
word to the Abbasid governor of Khorasan, asking for military assistance. Sensing an opportunity to gather their forces
and diminish Tang influence, the Abbasids mustered their troops
and marched out of Merv. On the way, reinforcements from parts of Tukharistan,
that were still under the Caliphate’s control, were summoned to join the main army. As they approached Samarkand, Ziyad ibn Salih,
a former Umayyad governor of Kuffa, joined with his contingent and assumed command of the whole army, continuing the march east, determined to restore Islamic power long bereft,
to the steppes of Central Asia… The two armies lined up on the flat plain
next to the river Talas, not far from the city bearing the same name. Accounts of the battle differ greatly, but
according to the most consistent estimates by modern scholars, Ziyad commanded up to
40,000 troops. He placed archers in the front,
with several rows of spearmen just behind, and a mix of heavy and light
cavalry on each flank, as well as a contingent of light cavalry along with his own heavily armored
bodyguard contingent in reserve. Meanwhile, Gao took to the field
with 30,000 troops. He mirrored the Abbasid formation, with his crossbowmen in the front mixed with regular archers supported by heavily armored
Tang spearmen in the center, and nomadic mercenary horsemen
on each flank, while the Ferghana contingent
and his own bodyguards were further back. As the vultures circled above, the two commanders
cautiously contemplated their moves. What happened next is a matter of debate,
but according to one account, Gao ordered his projectile division forward to probe for weaknesses in the Abbasid line. Ziyad responded, and a brief exchange
of projectiles followed. Thanks to superior missile technology,
Tang crossbowmen soon prevailed and the Abbasid archers
were forced back. Gao promptly ordered his spearmen forward! The Tang commander relied, not for the first
time, on the Empire’s well drilled professional troops. The trees rattled as the disciplined Chinese
heavy infantry rumbled forward in unison, packed in a tight formation. Close behind, mounted mercenaries followed
in support of the infantry. Ziyad moved his numerically
superior infantry forward, hoping to slow down the enemy’s advance, and give his own cavalry more room to maneuver. As the gap closed, the troops in either line
gripped their weapons and braced for impact! As the opposing armies interlocked,
hacking and stabbing at each other, the scent of blood
quickly filled the air. Meanwhile, Gao signalled his cavalry on the flanks to gallop forward and encircle the Abbasid infantry. Ziyad immediately sent his
heavy and light cavalry divisions forward to alleviate the pressure on his infantry
and repel the Chinese advance. In the center, the better armored Tang spearmen
pushed their counterparts back, their packed formation proving
effective against the Abbasid footmen. On the flanks, Ziyad’s heavier cavalry stopped the nomadic horsemen in their tracks, but Gao’s merceneries held strong in the face of an assault from a superior enemy force. The Governor of Samarkand then sent his reserves
forward, aiming to break the stalemate! He ordered his cavalry to aim for the immediate
flanks of the Chinese infantry. But Gao, meanwhile, moved his own reserve up the field, negating the efforts of his opponent. Both armies matched each other’s strength
and neither would waver. Tiredness, however, was what eventually forced the two commanders to withdraw and rest their troops. A similar stalemate continued for two more days, with sporadic skirmishes and head on clashes, but neither side was able to make
any significant gains. The other account of the battle, however, claims that the two armies stood in battle formations. for four days without engaging
each other. Perhaps neither side wanted to risk losing
their army, aware that it would take a while to get reinforcements in
this remote frontier region. But… perhaps unbeknownst to Gao, prior to
the battle Ziyad had established contact with a contingent from one of the Turkic Karluk
tribes, living in the steppes further east, recruiting them into his ranks. As small groups of riders trickled in
for a couple of days, the Muslim commander concealed them
in the tall grass across the Talas river. Then, on the fifth day of the battle, Ziyad
knew he was ready! He ordered his archers and spearmen forward,
with cavalry following close behind. The Abbasids advanced at a strong pace, while Gao had his troops slowly move forward into position. Projectile contingents of the two armies
began exchanging volleys of arrows, with the Chinese getting the better
of their Muslim counterparts. The earth groaned as the mass of Abbasid troops
moved forward to meet the enemy head on! As the infantry in the center clashed, cavalry
divisions on the flanks widened their lines, trying to outflank each other. Soon, however, the Abbasid cavalry managed
to force the Chinese mounted troops into a brutal static melee, as Gao’s nomadic mercenaries
couldn’t feign retreat without exposing the flanks of the infantry in the center. “Now is the time!”, Ziyad cried out, signalling
the Karluk mercenaries to attack! Emerging from the reeds, the nomadic riders
galloped forward! A handful of Tang officers spotted the enemy
on their flank, but with nearly all of their troops engaged, they desperately tried to
form a line with men from their own retinues. Moments later, arrows from the east started
whizzing overhead. With the Talas river behind them, the Karluk
horsemen charged head long into Gao’s flank! The morale of the Tang troops on the left
broke and many tried to flee, fearing an encirclement. Ziyad urged his men on, not wanting to allow
the enemy to escape. The Governor of Samarkand outwitted the Tang
commander and now the Chinese troops began falling in their thousands, as the Abbasid
army scythed through their formations. With very few survivors left,
Gao ordered a retreat… However, Chinese sources contest this outcome,
claiming that it was not Ziyad’s superior diplomacy and tactics that won the day. Rather, the Tang account of the battle claims
that the Karluk mercenaries were not across the river, but were in fact under Gao’s
command, laying blame on them for the defeat, after they treacherously switched sides mid-battle,
and attacked from both flanks. If this were true, Gao’s 10,000 infantry
made up only a third of the Tang army, and would stand no chance
against 20,000 Karluks. But in actuality, it’s most likely that
both the Tang army and the Abbasids had contingents of Karluks
in their ranks, and that Ziyad managed to launch a surprise
attack on the last day of the battle. Whatever the case, of the 30,000 Tang troops
that fought at Talas, only a small percentage survived. In the aftermath of the Battle of Talas, the
significance of its' outcome was not immediately clear. Strategically speaking,
the battle was a tactical draw. Gao's plans for a renewed invasion
never came to fruition, since the Tang Empire temporarily
withdrew most of their troops east to deal with growing unrest
in the north and south of the country, as well as Tibetan incursions that put
further pressure on the Empire. Meanwhile, the eastern expansion
of the Caliphate was halted. While the Abbasids could've theoretically pressed their advantage after such a crushing victory, at that time their supply lines were still not fully established, thus sending a large army east would not have been a prudent move. As a result, the Abbasid-Chinese border stabilized. But, the Battle of Talas seems
to have gone largely unnoticed, by contemporary Chinese
and Abbasid chroniclers. Nevertheless, it had important consequences. The Chinese Empire was no longer in any
position to interfere in Central Asia, which meant that, in the wake of their victory,
the Abbasids were there to stay. And while the Turkic and
Persian population of Central Asia certainly did not convert to Islam
right after the battle in 751 AD, by driving out the Chinese there was no longer a counterweight to the Muslim presence, which allowed the Abbasids to
gradually spread their influence across the deserts, mountains
and steppes of the region. Within the next 250 years, most of the
formerly Buddhist, Hindu, Zoroastrian, and Nestorian Christian tribes
of Central Asia had all become Muslim. But, perhaps most significant of all, among the prisoners captured after the battle, were Chinese artisans,
skilled in the art of paper-making. Soon, paper mills appeared in Muslim urban centers across the Middle East, and over the coming centuries the
technology spread to Europe as well, fueling advances
in science and theology. And... with the promotion of
commerce, industry, and the arts, the prestige of the Caliphate
would spread across the known world, under the banner of the Abbasids...
