It is the waning years of the 16th century. Despite being nominally at peace since 1568, the
borderlands of the Habsburg and Ottoman domains are still subject to constant raids and
small-scale conflict. Given that this period of supposed peace between the two empires
was commonly referred to as the “little war”, it was clear that the resumption of large-scale
military campaigns was ultimately inevitable. Although both empires had recently
signed a 9-year peace treaty, in 1591, any hope that it can be maintained
was shattered in the summer of 1592, when the prospect of war became an imminent reality.
Without a declaration of war, the Ottoman Beylerbey of Bosnia, Hasan Pasha, led an army
of 20,000 Janissaries and attacked Croatia, laying siege to the fortress of Sisak.
While the Croatians managed to repel the Ottomans, they were unable to prevent the capture of
the crucial fortified border city of Bihac. Hasan Pasha again attempted to capture Sisak the
following year, in 1593, with a force of around 15,000. This time however, he was decisively
defeated by a 5,000 strong Croatian, Slovenian, and German relief army. The Ottomans suffered
nearly 8,000 casualties. Among those killed was Hasan Pasha himself, the Sultan’s nephew Mehmed,
and six other beys. When news of the defeat reached Constantinople, the Ottoman nobility,
urged on by the Sultan’s sister, called for war. Despite the attack being in direct violation
of current Ottoman interests and policies, Sultan Murad III felt obliged to retaliate. He
deemed the defeat far too embarrassing to ignore. Accordingly, Sultan Murad III declared
war on the Holy Roman Emperor, Rudolph II, and the two superpowers of the era began preparing
for a confrontation that would decide the fate of Central Europe for centuries to come.
Thus, the Long Turkish War, had begun… Understanding the threat that the Ottomans
posed to Christian dominance in Europe, Pope Clement VIII re-established the Holy League
in 1594. It consisted of a series of military alliances between various European powers, all
united under the goal of driving the Ottomans out of Europe, once and for all.
The coalition included both Catholic and Orthodox nations. Of its members, Wallachia,
Transylvania, Moldavia, and the Serbs of Banat, had all been formally under Ottoman
rule and were now in open rebellion. The Serb, which had begun in March, had expected
to receive more support from the Allies. When it failed to materialize, however, the rebellion was
ultimately defeated by July of the same year. In terms of military objectives for the war,
the Ottoman army looked to seize Vienna, while the Habsburgs aimed to
unite their Hungarian territories. In support of their Austrian relatives, the
Spanish Habsburgs dispatched a force of 6,000 infantry and 2,000 cavalry from the Netherlands,
under the command of Karl von Mansfeld. In January of 1595, Sultan Murad I died of natural
causes. The situation quickly began to worsen for the Ottoman throughout the year. Forced to
fight on two fronts, in Wallachia and Hungary, they suffered defeats against the likes of
Mihai the Brave at Calugareni and Giurgiu, and at Esztergom against Karl von Mansfeld. These victories did not leave the
Christian cause unscathed, however, as von Mansfeld was wounded during the siege
and died shortly afterwards. As his replacement, Emperor Rudolph II appointed his own brother, the
inexperienced Archduke of Austria, Maximilian III. However, despite this setback, the Austrian forces
continued on to capture the castle of Hatvan, in August of 1596. It is said that after
the garrison had capitulated, every Ottoman, including women and children, were
slaughtered by the Austrian troops. In the same month, the Ottomans
launched a massive offensive, under the personal command of the new Sultan
himself, Mehmed III. Source vary significantly on the size of the Ottoman force, with some
putting the figure as high as one million. It is speculated that Mehmed III’s army was larger
than the host led by Suleiman the Magnificent, 30 years prior, which had numbered around 100,000.
As such, historians have generally estimated the figure to range anywhere from 100,000 to
150,000, in addition to 170 cannons. The Ottoman army of this period was
in desperate need of modernization. Composed mostly of light cavalry, it is estimated
that the infantry arm made up no more than 20% of the army’s total fighting strength.
It is also important to note, that the army did not have any heavy cavalry.
The only unit possessing firearms, was an elite core of 32,000 Janissaries, with the rest of the
army still being equipped with cold weapons. The Ottoman host moved slowly, not only
due to its size, but also because the Sultan still hadn’t determined the goal of the
campaign. Upon reaching the Danube, he convened a war council with his commanders. Because the
offensive had begun 3 months later than planned, they concluded that attacking Vienna was
unfeasible, this late in the campaigning season. Still with no military objective, and unsure
in which direction to take the army, some proposed besieging the castle of Komarom, arguing
that its capture would secure the Danube frontier. However, many nobles opposed this suggestion,
believing that the castle was too small and did not deserve to be besieged by the Sultan. After
some debate, the council decided on a target more worthy of being captured by their leader.
Thus, the Ottoman war machine began moving towards the important border fortress of Eger.
Because of its location, Eger acted as one of the primary links between the allied Habsburg and
Transylvanian lands. By capturing it, the Ottoman commanders looked to hinder the Allies’ ability to
effectively communicate and supply one another. Maximilian III, who was still encamped at
Hatvan, managed to send a small detachment to reinforce the castle’s garrison, raising
the number of defenders to around 4,000. The Sultan’s army arrived around Eger’s
walls around September 21st of 1596. Despite its importance, and having just received
reinforcements, the border fortress was gravely unprepared for a siege and had little hope of
repelling the Ottoman tide. When Maximilian III realized the size of the Ottoman host,
the Archduke retreated to Esztergom. What is strange, however, is that
possibly due to his inexperience, Maximilian III did not immediately
begin mobilizing the rest of his forces to relieve Eger. It wasn’t until
October 4th, nearly two weeks later, that the Archduke finally began to take action
and make his way towards the border fortress. Mustering what additional forces he could while
on the move, Maximilian III also sent word to his commanders, to gather their troops and join him in
relieving Eger. Additionally, Sigismund Bathory, the Prince of Transylvania, offered his
assistance, which the Archduke accepted. Bad weather and poor roads caused even more
delays. The constant autumn rain made many of the mountain paths impassable, as the
dirt roads turned into thick mud. This made travel exceedingly difficult, especially
for a large army with a large baggage train. Both men and animal were left behind in large
numbers, either due to fatigue, hunger, disease, or combination of the three. Some sources have
suggested that the Archduke may have lost up to 1/3 of his army during this difficult march.
Eger’s garrison surrendered on October 13th, the siege having lasted just over three weeks.
In retaliation for Hatvan, the Sultan ordered every captured Austrian to be executed, while
sparing the Hungarian units in the garrison. Upon learning that Eger had fallen,
Maximilian III held a war council, to determine the army’s next move.
It is here that we should take the time to introduce the leadership
of the Allied Christian forces. While Archduke Maximilian
III was commander-in-chief, due to his lack of military experience a
council was established to help lead the army. The most experienced commanders were
Adolph von Schwarzenberg and Miklos Palffy. Schwarzenberg, a renowned general and Field
Marshal of the Austrian army, was responsible for most of the tactical and strategic planning.
Count Palffy led the troops from Royal Hungary and had significant experience in fighting against
the Ottoman style of war, having done so all his life. In command of the units from Upper
Hungary was Captain Christoph von Tiefenbach. The Transylvanians were led by Prince Sigismund
Bathory, with the mercenary captain Albert Kiraly commanding the Prince’s largest contingent.
It is generally accepted that the Christian force numbered around 40 to 50 thousand, with 97
cannons. It included troops from all over Europe, with its largest contingent being supplied by
Austria, Germany, Royal Hungary, Upper Hungary, Transylvania, and Silesia. Much of
the army was equipped with firearms, and at least half of the army was composed of
infantry. While the Allies had fewer cannons, these were of higher quality than those of the
Ottomans. In addition to their advantage in modern weaponry, the Christian forces had complete
supremacy in terms of heavy cavalry as well. After some discussion, the Christian commanders
determined the best course of action, would be to re-take Eger. They assumed that it would likely
be too damaged after the recent siege to mount any meaningful defense. They further believed that
the terrain around Eger would further prevent the Ottomans from utilizing their superior numbers
effectively. However, unsure of what the Ottoman plans were, they agreed to wait near the fields of
Mezokeresztes, due to its defensible position. The Ottomans, at this point still did not know
the strength of the Allied Christian force opposing them. Given the size of the Sultan’s
host, he did not take the threat seriously. He detached a force of around 15 to 20 thousand,
consisting of Rumelians, Tatars, and Janissaries, along with 43 cannons, under the command
of Jaffar Pasha. Jaffar Pasha, by many accounts appears to have been an experienced and
reliable commander. It is also worth mentioning, that there is still some speculation as to why
this force was sent. Some sources state that the Sultan had ordered Jaffar Pasha to ambush the
Christian camp during the night. This appears to be the most likely. However, it is also suggested,
that the force may have been sent to gather information about the strength of the opposing
Christian army, rather than to confront it. The opposing armies would meet in the fields
of the ruined village of Mezokeresztes. To the west of the village lay the Kachi stream,
with only two points suitable for a crossing, due to the swampy terrain that ran along
either side of the stream. The village itself, along with many others in the area, had
been destroyed during the siege of Eger. Jaffar Pasha, having arrived slightly
before the Christians with his army, had already ordered the Rumelian cavalry to
cross the stream. He left his Tatar auxiliaries, Janissaries, and cannons in position
to support from the opposite bank. In order to further strengthen his position,
he had the only bridge in the area dismantled. While the area underneath the
bridge was still fordable, it would make any attempt to cross
in-force much more difficult. The Ottoman commander hoped to use his
cavalry to lure the Christian forces into the range of his rifles and artillery.
This tactic of feigned retreat had long been the favorite of the Ottomans; very effective against
European troops due to their heavy armor. However, having received information gathered by
their spies and through interrogating prisoners, the Christian army was aware that
a force had been sent against them. Knowing that the Ottoman army
was somewhere in the vicinity, they marched in battle formation and
were ready for a quick response. Late in the afternoon of October 22,
600 forward riders of the Christian army made contact with the Ottoman vanguard, near the
ruined village of Mezokeresztes. Albert Kiraly, who was with the Transylvanian vanguard,
quickly sent 300 lancers in support. Still heavily outnumbered, however, the
forward riders sent for further reinforcements. Schwarzenberg moved quickly, bringing with
him around 10,000 Austrian and German riders, in addition to the full Transylvanian vanguard. Palffy followed close behind as well, with
a large number of Hungarian hussars. As Schwarzenberg’s cavalry were about to engage,
the rest of the Christian army also progressed towards the battlefield. The Rumelian cavalry,
who had up to this point been holding their own, began to flee. Fortunately for them, the
Janissaries were able to cover their retreat, keeping the chasing Austrian and Hungarian
riders at bay with rifle fire. The Rumelians, however, did not regroup on the opposite bank,
but rather continued to flee from the field. As the Hungarian and Transylvanian infantry
began to arrive, a fierce firefight ensued, as they exchanged gunfire with the Janissaries
across the stream. Up until this point, the Ottomans were yet to
activate their artillery. Now, unable to retreat due to the
proximity of the Christian forces, they realized that their only hope of surviving
was to hold back the Christian tide until sundown. They unleashed their 43 cannons.
In response, the Christian light infantry quickly spread out among the ruins of Mezokeresztes and
continued to return fire across the stream. Schwarzenberg ordered 6 cannons to be brought up,
in order to help force the way across the ford. With some artillery support, Albert Kiraly rallied
his troops and again made an attempt to cross, only to be forced back by intense
and concentrated Ottoman fire. Due to the narrowness of the ford, it was clear
that the Christians will not be able to cross without sustaining extreme casualties. The Transylvanian captain instead decided to
look for another suitable point to traverse the stream. He was able to find one further north,
bringing with him 800 of the elite Blue Uniform Personal guards of the Transylvanian
prince, along with some 500 cavalry. The Transylvanian captain formed his men on
a small hill, overlooking the Ottoman left flank. He ordered his troops not to engage
until the entire force was in position. When the order was finally given, hundreds of
rifles roared into the unsuspecting Ottoman flank, throwing both Janissary infantry
and Tatar cavalry into confusion. Looking to further exploit the
chaos, the Transylvanian captain ordered his entire force to charge.
The Christian cavalry made first contact, driving into the Ottoman ranks, who were
still reeling from the initial rifle volley! It was at this point that
the Tatar auxiliaries fled, leaving the infantry to
their fate. At the same time, the Christian forces on the opposite bank renewed
their efforts to force their way across. The pressure was simply too much for
the already demoralized Janissaries, having been abandoned by most of their cavalry
and now pressed on two sides. The resolve of these elite and professional soldiers, the
pride of the Ottoman army, finally broke. With the rout of the Janissaries, what remained
of the Ottoman force shattered and fled, in the wake of the Christian onslaught. The
lighter units of Hungarian infantry and cavalry began running down the fleeing Ottomans,
only giving up the chase as night fell. The entire confrontation
had lasted at most 1 hour. The Ottoman losses during this initial clash were
around 500 to 1000, with all of their 43 cannons captured by their enemy. The Christian losses
were negligible, with sources stating around 15 dead, although this figure may be biased.
Regardless, it can be gathered that the Christian forces suffered far fewer casualties compared to
the Ottomans, during this initial encounter. In a report sent to the Sultan
before the battle, Jaffar Pasha had incorrectly estimated the Christian army
to number around 30 to 35 thousand strong. It is further mentioned that upon hearing the
size of the opposing army, many of the Ottoman commanders began urging retreat. Jaffar Pasha
rejected this notion for two reasons, however. Firstly, because his force had up to that
point faced few difficulties and had not yet run into any resistance, he thought it
would be shameful to return to the Sultan, having accomplished so little. Secondly, he
believed that victory was a very real possibility, given the favorable terrain. However, Jaffar
Pasha had underestimated the Christian commanders, who were highly familiar with the area,
having campaigned there for much of the war. While the initial Ottoman plan of luring
the Christian army into concentrated rifle and cannon fire was sound, it is evident that
they had not expected the initial detachment of riders to hold out for as long as they did.
These forward riders had not actually been a part of the Christian vanguard, but were
rather sent to find a suitable campground for the main army. The Rumelian cavalry, for
whatever reason, were unable to lure their enemy, either possibly due to the cautiousness of the
Christian commanders, or because of the narrow terrain, which limited their ability to maneuver
effectively. Because the Ottomans were unable to rout this forward unit quickly, they allowed
for enemy reinforcements to steadily pour in and eventually for the entire Allied army to appear.
It is also possible, that the Rumelians were still in the process of crossing the stream when they
were engaged by the Christian riders. Either way, their attempts to disengage and feign
retreat turned into a genuine route at the sight of the entire Christian army.
It is also important to note, that the Rumelian cavalry were simply not equipped
for such prolonged close-quarters combat, especially against more heavily armed
and armoured European style troops. This initial engagement further showed, that
while the terrain was highly advantageous to its defender, it did not guarantee success
against a numerically superior foe. The Ottomans were also lucky
that the confrontation began so late in the day, which helped them minimize
the casualties sustained during the rout. However, despite this minor victory, the Allied
Christian leadership understood that the Ottomans were far from defeated. The Sultan’s main
host still stood between them and Eger. Both sides prepared themselves for the
massive confrontation, that was yet to come. After defeating the Ottoman vanguard during
the afternoon of October 22nd of 1596, the allied army of the Holy League enjoyed an
air of confidence, realizing that despite being outnumbered two to one, they had a very
real chance of defeating the massive Ottoman host that invaded their lands. Even so, the allied commanders were still
as cautious as ever. Fearing an ambush, they did not allow their
troops to make camp that night. An Italian noble who had fought with the Christian
army, recounts: “That night, everyone stood where they happened to be, and because it
was very cold on a field without firewood, we suffered endlessly.” During the following morning of October 23rd,
the Christian commanders convened a war council. However, notably absent from this meeting
was the prince of Transylvania, Sigismund Bathory. The prince, having set off with his troops
before the break of dawn, moved to pursue the defeated Ottoman army, and possibly even
ambushing the Sultan’s main camp. It seems he may have assumed the allied army
would follow him, though this would not be the case however, as the allied commanders
had ultimately agreed upon a very different course of action. Deciding that the army would maintain its
position at Mezokeresztes, they quickly sent messengers to recall the prince. The reasoning of the allied commanders was
as follows: In addition to its highly defensible terrain,
the village of Mezokeresztes was also located on the only immediate route into Hapsburg
Hungary that could support the massive Ottoman army, which would also only be able to approach
from the West; as the mountainous terrain to the North, and the swamplands to the South
were both impassable for an army. If the Sultan wished to continue the offensive,
he would be forced to attack the entrenched Christian army on terrain that not only minimized
the Ottoman advantage in numbers, but also maximized the Christian advantage in firepower. If the Sultan chose to withdraw from the area,
the allies would be in a strong position to recapture Eger, which had been their original
goal to begin with. With this in mind, the allies were content
in allowing the Ottomans to make the first move and react accordingly. A campsite north of Mezokeresztes was eventually
designated for the army, and the two major fords of the Kacsi stream were fortified with
trenches. At the Ottoman camp, Sultan Mehmed was in
a panic, shocked by the defeat of his vanguard. During a hastily assembled war council, two
proposals were put forth. The first, was suggested by the Sultan himself, who wanted
to send only the Rumelian army against the Christians. This, however, was strongly opposed by the
rest of the council. The second proposal, which was supported unanimously
amongst the Ottoman commanders, put forth that under the leadership of the Sultan, the
entire army must move to confront the Christians. Faced with strong opposition from the rest
of the Ottoman leadership, Sultan Mehmed had no choice but to adapt himself to the will
of his commanders. Just as the army was about to set off however,
sources mention that the Sultan considered abandoning his army and returning to Constantinople. It is said that the Sultan had gone as far
as attempting to transfer the leadership of the army to his Grand Vizier, Ibrahim Pasha. However, the Grand Vizier was able to dissuade
the Sultan from such rash action. Early in the morning of October 24, the Ottoman
host began moving towards Mezokeresztes, leaving behind a force of around 5000 to garrison
Eger. Later that afternoon, the forward elements
of the Sultan’s army were spotted by a unit of 300 Transylvanian cavalry guarding the
southern ford. The Ottoman vanguard, consisting of approximately
10,000, sent forward around 3000 tatar cavalry, supported by 6 cannons, in order to probe
the Christian lines for any weaknesses. The tatars spread out along the stream attempting
to cross in small numbers wherever they could. Meanwhile, the rest of the Ottoman vanguard
assaulted the Christian fortifications, which had been built around the ruined church of
Mezokeresztes. The 300 Transylvanian cavalry who had been
guarding the ford were quickly overwhelmed. The Tatars at this point, had also managed
to cross the stream, finding a small fordable area somewhere further to the South of Mezokeresztes. In total, approximately 5 thousand Ottoman
cavalry had crossed over to test the Christian defenses. These troops now began making their way towards
the Christian camp. The Ottoman cavalry’s success would prove
to be short-lived, however, as the allied command had agreed to allow several thousand
Ottomans to cross, with the intention of cutting off their retreat once they did so. The Christian trap was first announced with
a barrage of devastating cannon fire, which all but stopped the unwitting Ottoman vanguard
in its tracks, attempting to return fire with their 6 cannons. This proved ineffective however and did not
offer any reprieve from the Christian bombardment. Additionally, as the Sultan had elected not
to seek battle that day, these units found themselves unsupported by the rest of the
Ottoman army, who had instead started to make camp on the other side of the stream. Seeing that the unit was isolated, Sigismund
Bathory now gathered his cavalry, and charged, and after a brief clash, the Ottoman vanguard
was eventually routed, being pursued by the Christians up to the opposite bank. As it was now late in the evening, the allied
commanders chose not to push the attack any further. In their rush to escape, the Ottomans had
abandoned their 6 cannons, which were promptly captured by the Transylvanians. This concluded the final actions between the
two armies on October 24th. In order to further secure their positions,
Albert Kiraiy posted 2000 cavalry at each of the two major fords. As the Ottoman host was so large, its marching
formation stretched for miles, with contingents continuing to arrive on the battlefield well
into the morning of October 25. Those unfortunate enough to arrive later in
the night or in the early morning were not given the opportunity to make camp however,
and instead were sent immediately to their battle positions. The Christian awoke on the morning of October
25th to the sight of the Ottoman army, assembled and in battle order. It should be noted however, that the Sultan
still had not yet arrived on the battlefield at this time. At around 6AM, the Ottomans, taking advantage
of their advanced tactical position, were initially able to drive the Christian guard
units from their fortifications before the rest of the allied army could assemble. Aiming to secure a bridgehead on the Christian
bank, the Ottomans additionally sent four cannons across the stream in order to further
fortify their newly gained positions. The Ottoman vanguard now began to threaten
the assembling Christian army, as the outnumbered forward units assigned to guard the crossing
were pushed back and forced to give ground. In order to buy more time for the army to
assemble, the allied leaders sent a detachment of 300 cavalry to help stall the Ottoman advance. Additionally, Albert Kiraiy ordered a number
of cannons to be brought out from the camp, which began firing upon the densely packed
encroaching Ottoman battle line. The Ottomans returned fire with their four
cannons, which was mostly ineffective. Unable to withstand the withering fire of
the accurate Christian artillery, and in parallel with the previous day’s events, the Ottoman
vanguard was once again forced back across the stream. This allowed the Christian army enough time
to properly form up in their designated battle positions, which is as follows: The army of
Upper Hungary, led by Tieffenbach, stood facing the Mezokeresztes ford, its left flank anchored
by the fortified Church. The Transylvanians, led by Prince Sigismund
Bathory and Albert Kiraiy stood facing Southwest, their right flank secured by Tiefenbach’s
units who were manning the Church fortifications; with their left flank secured by a wagonfort. The Northern passage was guarded by the troops
of Archduke Maxilimian III who had also left an additional contingent to guard the camp
itself. Schwarzenberg, along with most of the German
infantry, held the ground between the Christian camp and the ruined village. The Christian artillery was placed behind Tiefenbach’s
troops, overlooking the crossing at Mezokeresztes. After they were driven back, the Ottoman vanguard
again attempted to cross in small groups. It is mentioned that the Tatars launched a
fierce attack on the northern passage which was likely motivated by their desire to plunder
the Christian camp. Small groups of Tatars also crossed in the
same areas further to the South, as the day before. These units also began making their way towards
the Christian camp and attempted to circumvent the Transylvanian army opposing them. This was a mistake however, as the Transylvanians,
along with those inside the wagon fort, fired upon the Tatar cavalry, inflicting many casualties
and forcing them to withdraw. At around 11AM, Sultan Mehmed III, along with
the final units of the Ottoman army finally arrived on the battlefield and took up their
positions. While the Sultan’s presence was necessary
for the morale of the troops, the army was in practice, led by the Grand Vizier, Ibrahim
Pasha. The Ottoman artillery was placed in front
of the center division, which was held by the janissaries, who were flanked on either
side by the Sultan’s household cavalry units from Constantinople and its surrounding areas. The army deployed according to Ottoman tradition
ever since the Battle of Mohacs, with the Rumelians taking up their position on the army’s left wing,
while the Anatolians took up the right wing. It seems that the Ottoman vanguard, with the
tatar cavalry, were also placed on the right wing and comprised its first line. While we know the positioning of the Ottoman
units, the precise formation they utilized is somewhat unclear, although it is suggested
that they may have deployed in the shape of a crescent. The battle commenced with an artillery duel. Despite being outgunned, the superior quality
of the Christian artillery pieces emerged victorious, inflicting greater losses than
their Ottoman counterparts. Realizing this, the Grand Vizier ordered his
left wing forward in an attempt to storm the Christian fortifications. This initial attack enjoyed some success,
as the Ottoman artillery began targeting the engaged Christian right flank. Looking to further press the attack, Ibrahim
Pasha sent forward his janissaries, and as they emerged from the ford, also began firing
into the Christian right flank. The situation became critical for the Christian
army, as Tieffenbach’s troops struggled desperately to keep the surging Ottoman tide
at bay. Seeing this, Albert Kiraiy hurried to the
aid of his Hungarian allies, bringing with him the elite, blue-uniformed guards of the
Transylvanian Prince. Schwarzenberg also moved to assist with his
own units, and with the combined strength of the three contingents, the Christian allies
finally managed to repulse the Ottoman attack. However, as the Ottomans began to retreat
back across the ford, 2 to 3 thousand mixed Transylvanian infantry and cavalry attempted
to pursue them but were quickly driven back by the unengaged Ottoman right flank and sustained
heavy casualties. This would conclude the last of the fighting
that occurred on October 25th, as the Ottoman army withdrew to their camp for the night. The Christian army maintained its battle positions
for some time, and after posting additional guards, eventually followed suit. While the allies had gotten the better of
the Ottomans during the previous engagements of October 22nd and 24th, the fighting on
the 25th ultimately ended in a stalemate, mostly due to the extensive casualties suffered
by the Transylvanians troops that had attempted to pursue the Ottomans. The two opposing armies prepared themselves
for the following day, their leaders drafting extensive battle plans late into the night. Both sides understood that the decisive engagement
of the most important battle of their lives would soon begin. Having fought the Ottoman army to a stalemate
on October 25, and with darkness falling, the Christian war council unanimously agreed
upon a plan for the following day. Hoping to replicate the actions of October
24 on a larger scale, they would once again allow the Ottomans to cross the stream. They knew that there would only be enough
space for a small portion of the massive army to deploy for battle. The Christians planned to split their army
into two battle groups. The first battle group would deploy with its
back against the camp, and with the Kacsi stream protecting its right flank. In doing so, they would draw the Ottoman army
towards the Christian side of the stream, at first allowing several thousand to cross. They would then quickly surge forward and
overwhelm these units, whose only avenue of retreat would have been back into their own
troops, who would still be in the process of fording the stream. In the ensuing confusion, the task of the
second battle group would be to flank around through the Northern passage, and strike the
disorganized Ottoman formation from the side, simultaneously cutting off their retreat. The major encounter had finally come... It is worth mentioning, that during the final Allied
war council, the Archduke had suggested that the Christian army would likely have been
able to defeat the Ottomans simply by keeping them occupied for a few more days, rather
than seek a decisive engagement, believing that the Sultan’s host would likely disintegrate
on its own. The Austrian Archduke’s assessment proved
to be correct, as during the same night, the Ottoman leadership realized that they would
have to seek a decisive engagement the following day as their army was exhausted and running
low on provisions. However, instead of allowing their troops
to rest for the night, the Ottoman commanders instead agreed to attempt a night crossing. Utilizing the smaller fording points found
by the Tatars further South, the army spent the entire night and early morning of October 25 and 26
crossing in small groups and moving into position. Although the Christian army was surprised
by the early Ottoman crossing, they were not necessarily caught unprepared. Upon seeing the Ottoman positions, the allied
command made a sudden change in their battle plans, deciding that the army would under
no circumstance, cross the stream to pursue the Ottomans, thereby eliminating the need
for a second battle group. Under threat of encirclement by the Ottomans,
the Christian forward units guarding the ford were quickly recalled and used instead to
screen the allied army as it deployed for battle. The Christian artillery once again proved
its worth, as their volleys managed to halt the Ottoman advance altogether. The exact deployment of the Christian army
is somewhat unclear and is still debated. An unknown number of cannons were placed on
the flanks in front of the main battle line, with both batteries being assigned around
500 infantry each. It appears that the Western Christian infantry
under the command of Schwarzenberg, were divided into five tercios and placed in the center
of the first line, with Hungarian and Transylvanian light infantry covering the center right and
center left, respectively. Placed in between the tercios was a portion of the
Transylvanian Hussars, commanded by Sigismund Bathory. The second line, deployed in a wedge formation, and was
designed to punch straight through the Ottoman ranks. Led by Archduke Maximilian III, it consisted
of 4000 Hungarian hussars led by Palffy, their flanks covered by heavy German cavalry, with
1000 riders on the right and 1300 on the left. At the back of the wedge were 500 of the most
heavily armed and armored knights Europe had to offer. These riders, most of whom were from Westphalia,
along with their horses, were covered head to toe in full plate armor. The third and final line was led by Tieffenbach
and composed mostly of the remaining Hungarian cavalry and infantry, also including a number
of mixed units from other allied nations as well. Around 10,000 troops stayed behind to guard
the camp. The deployment of the Ottoman army is also
unclear, although we do know that a crescent shape formation was adopted. It seems that 24,000 cavalry led by Ibrahim
Pasha were placed in the center, with artillery batteries on either side placed in intervals,
totaling 109 cannons. In between each interval was a unit of around
2000 janissaries, who stood in squares, as the narrow terrain prevented them from forming
a proper battle line. The left and right flanks were occupied by
the anatolian and rumelian armies respectively. In front of the flanks were the irregular cavalry units,
with the tatars on the front right wing. On the other side of the stream, facing North-East,
stood the Sultan with the rest of his janissary infantry, flanked by cavalry on either side,
and a few artillery pieces to their front. Additionally, a large contingent of cavalry
had been sent to the Northern passage with orders to wait for an opportune moment and
attempt to strike the Christian army from the rear. The battle eventually began with the Christian first line
pushing forward under the cover of artillery fire. The flanks of the first line charged ahead
and engaged the Ottomans opposite them. However, the Christian right flank, who had
enjoyed some initial success, pushed too far and found themselves pressed on two sides
as a unit of Janissaries from the Sultan’s contingent crossed the stream and joined the
fight. Seeing this, Albert Kiraiy, who was positioned
on the left flank, renewed his attack, managing to rout the Tatar cavalry in front of him. However, rather than pushing their advantage,
the contingent of Szekely guardsmen under his command took to looting the corpses of
their enemies. This prompted the routing Tatar cavalry to
turn back and charge the unsuspecting infantry. Some units of Tatars attempted to swing around
the Christian flank and encircle the infantry in the first line, however, Tieffenbach managed
to counter this movement with his own cavalry from the third battle line, eventually routing
the Tatars. The Ottomans positioned at the Northern passage
now also commenced their attack, although were unable to break through the Christian
defenses. With both its flanks in danger of being routed,
the slow moving tercios of the first line finally arrived in the vicinity. The Ottoman cavalry opposing them could do little
to stop the wall of pikes as they edged forward slowly. Using these moving fortresses as cover, the
Hungarian and Transylvanian horsemen of the first line launched lightning strikes against
the Ottoman units. The Ottomans were seemingly helpless in the
face of the highly trained European army, who despite being outnumbered on the battlefield,
utilized their local superiority to deadly effect. Whenever the Ottoman cavalry threatened to
overwhelm the Christian riders, the Hussars would quickly withdraw back through the gaps,
and behind the protection of their infantry. If the Ottoman cavalry withdrew too far away
from the tercios, the Christian artillery would target them, and if they came too close,
they exposed themselves to both rifle fire and the sudden charges of the Christian cavalry. Unable to endure such abuse, the Ottoman cavalry
under Ibrahim Pasha were eventually routed. The Christian center continued to push forward,
defeating the remaining janissary units, and capturing all 109 of the Ottoman cannons. Sigismund Bathory then ordered his cavalry to aid
the flanks, attacking the Ottomans from the side. Leading some cavalry from the third line, Tiefenbach
also came to the aid of the Christian left flank. After some fighting, what remained of the
Ottoman left flank were also eventually routed. The seemingly unstoppable Christian advance
was finally halted by a unit of Janissaries who had taken up position at the fortified
church. The Christian infantry repeatedly attempted
to storm the Ottoman positions, but each time were repelled by the janissaries. The Christians eventually realized that if
they wished to dislodge the stubborn Ottomans from their fortifications, they would need more
offensive power than the infantry could provide. The Christian second line was finally brought
forward. Under the cover of artillery fire, the steel-clad
wedge of men and horses drove forward, and crashed into the Ottoman positions. Simultaneously, the Christian infantry had
taken up position in the nearby ruined houses, and now began indiscriminately firing into
the Ottoman ranks. Even under the immense pressure of the combined
arms of the Christian infantry, cavalry and artillery, the janissaries clung desperately
to their final remaining bridgehead. It was only after a bloody melee, that they were
finally routed and forced back across the stream. Upon achieving this great success, however,
the Christian commanders now faced a dilemma. Despite the allied leaders having agreed earlier
in the morning that under no circumstance would they cross the stream, the Hungarian
and Transylvanian commanders now rode to the Archduke’s position, calling on him to press
the attack. Both Maximilian III and Schwarzenberg were hesitant
to do so, not wanting to overextend the army. Sigismund Bathory, Albert Kiraiy, and Count
Palffy, all seemingly intoxicated with success however, continued to pressure the Archduke,
arguing that a complete and total victory was theirs for the taking. It was also around this time that the Archduke
received an incorrect report that the Sultan had already abandoned his army. With this news, Maximilian III finally relented,
and agreed to chase the enemy across the stream. The initial Christian attempts to cross were
met with stiff Ottoman resistance, the attacks of the German and Transylvanian infantrymen
being repulsed multiple times. The Christian artillery was eventually brought
forward, and under the cover of cannon and rifle fire, the army was finally able to force
its way across. Once the crossing was completed, the allied
commanders attempted to reform the army into their previous three-line battle formation. However, this was an incredibly difficult
task to accomplish, as not only would the line now have to be rotated a full 90 degrees,
but there was also only enough room for two lines. Worst of all, the crossing had not been completed
in any organized manner, with the troops of different units being hopelessly intermingled. The army would be exposed to attack as it
organized itself, which evidently, would take a significant amount of time that the Christians
simply did not have. Ibrahim Pasha, having managed to rally a portion
of his forces near the Northeastern end of the Ottoman camp, saw that the Christian army
was in disarray. The Grand Vizier hurriedly ordered his contingent
to charge the assembling Christian lines. Luckily for the Christians however, the Archduke
had already managed to reform his cavalry wedge, and quickly moved to intercept the
incoming Ottoman charge. In the ensuing clash, the more heavily armed
and armored European cavalry emerged victorious, the impact of their charge scattering the
Ottoman cavalry in all directions. Ibrahim Pasha himself was pushed back to the
very walls of the Ottoman camp. Meanwhile, it seems that the other allied
commanders either realized that it would be impossible to organize their troops in a reasonable
amount of time, or that they lost control of the troops, who believed that the battle
had already been won and were eager for a chance to plunder the Ottoman camp. As they approached the camp, the Christian
units were still able to form some semblance of a battle line, albeit extremely disorganized. Their advance was met by around 4000 janissaries,
who had fortified themselves along the Eastern entrance of the Ottoman camp and were supported
by 4 cannons. Heavily outnumbered however, this unit was
overwhelmed by the charge of the Christian first line of infantry. Unfortunately for the Christians however,
it was here where the front ranks of the allied army finally lost any semblance of cohesion
and discipline, as the army of Germans, Austrians, Hungarians and Transylvanians devolved into
a mob of looters, scattering amongst the tents in search of plunder, with many even discarding
their weapons in their eagerness. A group of Christian cavalry also managed
to force their way into the Ottoman camp from the North, and without facing any resistance,
made their way to the Sultan’s tent near the Southern end of the Ottoman camp, where
they encountered a unit of janissaries, who were still in good order. The janissaries first discharged their rifles,
then drew their swords and fell upon the shocked Christian riders, who began to flee. It was at this point that the supposedly victorious
Christian army began to descend into a rout. In their haste to cross the stream and seize
what they believed to be an easy victory, and in part due to the clouds of gunpowder
smoke in the air which limited visibility, the Christian commanders had failed to recognize
that a significant portion of the Ottoman army was still intact. In addition to the troops still fighting,
there were still 10,000 unengaged janissary infantry and a large number of sipahi cavalry
at the Southern end of the Ottoman camp. Additionally, the Ottoman reserves and rearguard,
along with other rallied units of Tatar and Anatolian cavalry, numbering over 25,000,
were also still positioned outside and to the South of the camp. Finally, the unit that had been sent to assault
the Northern passage earlier in the battle had also been recalled and were now within
sight of the Ottoman camp. The Sultan, who had at first considered fleeing,
was persuaded by one of his advisors to remain with the army and continue fighting. Mehmed III finally took charge, and under
his leadership, the remaining fresh units of janissaries and sipahi cavalry launched
a counterattack. The Sultan also called upon every able-bodied
servant and camp follower to take up arms and aid his troops in driving out the Christians
from the Ottoman camp. To all those that obeyed, he promised to grant
the rank and salary of Sipahi. The now revitalized Ottoman forces quickly
began overwhelming the scattered and sometimes unarmed Christian troops, who were in no position
to put up any real resistance. Simultaneously, the Ottoman units outside
the camp also commenced their attack from both the North and South. It is worth mentioning that while these attacks
occurred nearly at the same time, it appears that this was purely by chance, and was not
necessarily the result of any planning or coordination between the Ottoman commanders. As the fleeing Christian infantry began emerging
from the Ottoman camp, they ran into their own horsemen, who up to this point, were still
in battle order, and were engaged with the returning Ottoman units. The sight of the panicked infantry sowed confusion
amongst the allied cavalry units. As more and more panicked infantry began spilling
out of the camp, the Christian riders became unnerved, and soon, an unstoppable wave of
hysteria swept over the entire allied army. A few hundred hussars suddenly broke formation
and began to flee, then a few flags of german riders, and within moments, nearly the entire
Christian army had routed. The Archduke, along with a bodyguard of 300
riders, attempted to stem the mass rout, only to be brushed aside by the sea of panic-stricken
troops. Seeing that his efforts were futile, Maximilian
III withdrew to the ford, and there, again haplessly attempted to rally the army. The only resistance the Ottomans faced as
they began running down the Christians was from the contingent of a German Prince, Bernard
of Anhalt who unsuccessfully tried to stop the pursuing Ottoman cavalry with two hundred
saxon knights. Maximilian III, who by now had accepted that
the battle was lost, also attempted to cover the retreating army with the Christian artillery. However, after firing two volleys, the artillery
crews also abandoned their positions. Many allied troops were slaughtered by the
Ottomans as they attempted to cross the narrow ford, some even drowning as they climbed over
one another in desperation. A Transylvanian officer recounts that bodies
were piled so high in some places along the stream, that one could cross without ever
having touched either mud or water. The only saving grace for the Christian army,
however, was that the Ottomans, who were likely too exhausted to continue the pursuit, chased the
Christian troops only to the edge of the stream. Even with this disastrous rout, modern historians
believe that had there been any commander to do so, it would have been possible to rally
and reorganize the allied army within the protection of the fortified Christian camp. However, upon seeing the allied troops looting
their own camp, the Archduke dared not go inside, and instead abandoned the battlefield. The only commander to actually have returned
to the camp was Count Palffy, however, by the time he arrived at around midnight, the
army had already all but disintegrated. Realizing this, the remaining Christian troops
admitted defeat, silently gathered their belongings and returned home. On the Ottoman side, the Sultan at first struggled
to regain control of his scattered army, only managing to do so a day after the last of
the Christian forces had withdrawn. However, as it was now late October, and with
their logistical capacity already stretched to its limit, they were unable to take advantage
of the victory. Large amounts of equipment and material were
left behind on the battlefield, as the Ottomans were unable to take much with them as they
returned home, the rest having been abandoned by the Christians in their haste, The battle
of Keresztes proved to be the Ottoman’s last great victory in Central Europe. Having failed to achieve any significant change
in the status quo of the region, it seems that the tens of thousands of casualties suffered
on both sides were ultimately for nothing.
