In the first weeks of November, 1443, a series
of five battles were fought between the armies of the Ottoman Empire and a Crusader force
led by the legendary Hungarian knight John Hunyadi, for control of the city of Niš. The bloody clashes were part of a series of
engagements in what is known as the Long Campaign that will culminate in the Battle of Varna
a year later. Among the Ottoman ranks is Gjerj Kastrioti,
affectionately nicknamed “Iskander Bey'' by his comrades - Iskander being Turkish for
Alexander, and Bey being the Ottoman title for "governor". A loyal vassal of the Ottoman Turks and convert
to Islam, Gjerj held a reputation as a reliable military leader. Sultan Murad II rewarded his faithful service
with a governorship of Kastrioti, as well as honorific titles and command over a horse
contingent of 5,000 cavalrymen in the Ottoman army. And so, it came as a shock to the Turkish
leadership when Gjerj and some 300 Albanians disappeared into the night, deserting in the
wake of the Ottoman defeat at Niš. Gjerj Kastrioti now rode toward his ancestral
homelands, feeling a sense of destiny lying before him. Little could he foresee that he trodded the
path that would lead him to becoming a legend throughout the Balkans, a hero to the Albanian
people, and the terror of the Ottomans. Skanderbeg had a relatively humble and inauspicious
background. His father, Gjon, ruled over the small Albanian
principality of Kastrioti. The young Gjerj grew up in a turbulent and
changing world. The decline of the Byzantine Empire diminished
their holdings to the area surrounding Constantinople, leaving a power vacuum in the Balkans filled
by the Ottoman Turks, resurgent after a series of civil wars under competent rule of Sultan
Mehmed I; and the Republic of Venice, the dominant power in Eastern Mediterranean, whose
meddling in the affairs of south-eastern Europe brought it into conflict with the expanding
Ottoman sultanate. Much like other minor powers in the region,
the Christian nobles of Albania played off both sides to maintain control over their
own domains. For some fifty years, Gjon Kastrioti performed
this delicate balancing act. Maneuvering between the courts of Venice,
Serbia, and the Ottomans, Gjon converted to Catholicism, Orthodoxy, Islam, and back again
to Catholicism, repeating this tenuous cycle time and again. Gjon was also notable for his military leadership
on campaign. He fought alongside Sultan Bayezid I at the
1402 Battle of Ankara against the Timurid Empire. Following Tamerlane’s epic victory and the
capture of Sultan Bayezid, which had led to the Ottoman Interregnum, Gjon returned to
his ancestral homeland and broke with the Sultanate. As Bayezid’s sons plunged their empire into
civil war and anarchy, Gjon expanded his lands by conquest, opportune diplomatic marriages,
and strategic alliances with other nobles in the region. Soon, the House of Kastrioti controlled a
large swath of territory in north-central Albania. But this expansion was not left unchecked
for long. After emerging victorious from the Interregnum, Mehmed I
moved his army west to reassert Ottoman suzerainty over Albania. In 1415, Gjon again readily submitted to the
Turks, sending his son Gjerj as a hostage to the Ottoman court, ensuring his renewed
loyalty to the Sultan. The Dragon of Albania rises The young Gjerj Kastrioti was converted to Islam and received
education in Ottoman military tactics and strategy in the famous Endurun palace school system, which educated all the
Empire’s nobles and Janissary soldiers. While there, he earned the nickname “Iskander
Bey”, roughly meaning “Lord Alexander”, or simply “Skanderbeg” in the West. He returned briefly to his homeland in 1420,
but in 1423 Sultan Murad II launched another military campaign to reassert Ottoman authority
over the recalcitrant Albanian lords. Once again, Gjon sent his son to Edirne as
a hostage. From then on, Skanderbeg would serve the Ottoman
Empire loyally, taking part in the conquest of neighboring Christian states. However, trouble was brewing anew in Albania. In 1428, another war broke out between Venice
and the Ottoman Empire. Taking advantage of the situation, many Albanian
lords, Gjon Kastrioti included, rebelled against their Turkish overlords, aiming to regain
lost lands and achieve independence. But despite his father being one of the leaders
of the revolt, Skanderbeg asserted his loyalty to the Sultan. By 1430 the Venetians were defeated, and their
Albanian allies were left to fend for themselves. Murad II now turned his fury on Albania, rapidly
crushing the uprisings in the region. Next, the Sultan sought to break the power
of the perennially traitorous Albanian nobility. In a land and population survey of 1431 - 32,
Albanian lands were broken into some 335 timars - land grants given as fiefdoms to minor allies
and to the elite sipahis for their military service. Half of these timars were granted to Turkish lords
and officers at the expense of the now-displaced Albanian nobles. The few nobles who did retain power had their
holdings significantly reduced. Gjon Kastrioti in particular was stripped
of his most valuable lands, being merely left with the mountainous, backwater villages. With the replacement of the local elites came
heavier taxes and the dreaded devshirme; a policy where Christian children were forcibly
abducted, converted, and conscripted into service of the Janissary Corps. Unsurprisingly, the Albanians responded by
openly revolting. Once again, Skanderbeg remained loyal to the Ottomans
whilst this latest uprising raged on for another four years. His father Gjon was eventually defeated for
a final time, losing even more lands and dying a broken man. It was here that first cracks in Skanderbeg’s
loyalty to the Turks appeared. For his faithful service Skanderbeg expected
to be granted rule over most, if not all of his ancestral lands. But after he was granted audience with the
Sultan, he was granted only a single timar. Dissatisfied, he would repeatedly broach the
issue to Murad to no avail. His military career with the Ottomans culminated
with his appointment as governor of the Sanjak of Dibra in 1440, but Skanderbeg remained
discontented. He felt that his unblemished military record
warranted greater compensation and understandably felt he was being denied his birth right. It was around this time that Skanderbeg began
plotting a rebellion of his own. “I have not brought you freedom, I found it
here among you.” – Skanderbeg Skanderbeg’s opportunity came in the form
of a large crusading army. Alarmed at the rapid Ottoman advances in the
Balkans, Pope Eugene IV called on the Catholic powers of Europe to form a new Holy League
and drive out the Turks from Europe. The Crusade of Varna, as it became known,
moved rapidly after its start in October, 1443, with the Ottoman stronghold of Niš falling before
reinforcements could arrive to relieve the garrison. The Turks were caught completely off-guard. Murad hurriedly mustered whatever forces were
available, including Skanderbeg and his cavalry contingent. The Ottomans rushed into the Balkans to halt
the Christian army. Ottoman reinforcements arrived into the region
piecemeal, however. Under the leadership of the capable Hungarian
knight John Hunyadi, the Crusaders defeated three Ottoman armies before the Sultan ordered
a withdrawal deeper into Turkish territory. Amidst the confusion, Skanderbeg defected
the Ottoman camp with his 300 Albanian horsemen, but not before forcing one very nervous scribe
to forge a letter from the Sultan. Arriving at the city of Krujë on November
28th, he gave the forged letter to the local governor. In it were orders to hand control of the city
to Skanderbeg. Thinking he was obeying direct orders from
Murad, the governor surrendered the city without a fight. As soon as Ottoman forces were out of sight,
Skanderbeg announced his rebellious intentions to the gathered public. He promptly converted back to Christianity
and moved to secure the surrounding territory, capturing many neighboring castles and villages. Skanderbeg then began rallying the disenfranchised
Albanian nobility to his banner. Heads of the many aristocratic families answered
the call, gathering in the city of Lezhë to form what would become known as the League
of Lezhë – the first unified state in Albanian history. Skanderbeg was proclaimed “Chief of the
League of the Albanian People,” and took the title of “Lord of Albania.” More importantly, however, Skanderbeg managed to raise a
force of around 15,000 troops from the gathered elites. And he would soon need it. After rejecting an offer from the Sultan to
return as a vassal, a large Ottoman army was sent in 1444 to destroy the upstart and his
nascent state. Skanderbeg anticipated their point of entry
into his domain and positioned himself in the plain of Torvioll, where he hoped to gain
a tactical advantage. The relatively narrow plain was flanked on
two sides by thick, but not impassable forest. The plain ended in large sloping hills, while
surrounding mountains naturally funneled the approaching Ottomans into this chosen battlefield. Here, Skanderbeg waited on the high ground
until the Ottomans took up position on the opposite hill. Ali Pasha, one of the most respected generals
of the Ottoman Empire, led his force of 25,000 men and set up camp across from Skanderbeg’s
Albanians. As night fell, both armies sent out small
cavalry detachments to skirmish and harass each other. One group of Turks yelled insults at the Albanian
camp, attempting to bait some of the men into a trap, but Skanderbeg wisely prevented his
men from leaving. Meanwhile, the mood in the Ottoman camp was
celebratory. The troops feasted, expecting an easy victory
against the ragtag rebel army next morning. On the other hand, Skanderbeg ordered his men to rest,
knowing full well that a long day awaited them. In the hours before dawn on June 29th, 1444,
the two forces began arraying. Skanderbeg’s army, totalling 15,000 men,
consisted of 8,000 cavalry and 7,000 foot. He placed some 9,000 men in the front line. Utilizing a common Ottoman tactical formation,
he divided these into three groups within a crescent. This would make it difficult for the Ottomans
to surround his men, and in theory draw the enemies inside the formation to be attacked
on three sides. The left and right flanks held a mix of cavalry
and infantry, while Scanderbeg himself led a combination of archers and regular infantry
in the center. It appears that the right flank was deliberately
weakened in order to lure the Ottomans into concentrating their charge on that side of
the battlefield. Lastly, 3,000 men were held in reserve behind
the main formation to exploit breakthroughs or to shore up any faltering lines. Ali Pasha, meanwhile, deployed his 25,000
strong host in the standard three-lines. Irregular akinji cavalry was in the front,
typically deployed as a screen of skirmishers and they also acted as light infantry. Their task was to harass the Albanian lines and sap their
strength and morale with waves of arrow volleys. This task completed, the second line, consisting
of heavier sipahi cavalry and the famed Janissary corps, would then cleave through the softened
enemy line to deal the death blow. Finally, the third line was a mixed reserve. Ali Pasha was mounted in the center of the
Janissary Corps. Use of artillery is not mentioned in the sources,
perhaps because moving the guns through the mountainous terrain would slow down what the
Ottomans intended to be a swift campaign. Skanderbeg made the opening move. He led his crescent formation off the high
ground down into the flat plain and deliberately placed himself in a disadvantageous position,
aiming to lure the overzealous cavalry charge from the Ottomans, as well as to encourage the Ottomans
to abandon their high ground positions in turn. Ali Pasha obliged, ordering his akinji cavalry
to charge and pin the Albanians in place, in preparation for a decisive charge from
his second line. Akinji horsemen rode at a steady pace, only
to be met by a hurl of missile fire from the Albanian archers. Before the Ottoman riders could reach enemy
archers, Skanderbeg moved his own cavalry forward to cover their retreat. The Turkish riders proved ineffective in the
prolonged skirmish, seemingly running out of arrows. They suddenly wheeled about and hastily retreated
to the Ottoman line. Skanderbeg, familiar with the common Ottoman
tactic of feigned retreat, shouted at the troops to hold back, preventing them from
chasing and falling into a trap. With the Albanian remaining in place, Ali
Pasha brought forward the second Ottoman battle line. Dust kicked up, covering the plain, as the
elite Janissaries and Sipahi shock cavalry advanced. But as they reached the curved Albanian formation
they struck unevenly, overloading Skanderbeg’s right before the Ottoman center and left could
make contact; the full weight of their attack, meant to break the enemy, thus losing momentum. Having weakened his right flank to lure in
more enemy forces, Skanderbeg needed his men to hold firm long enough to execute his plan. This was easier said than done, as the Albanian
right buckled under the shock of the Ottoman charge. For a time the battle’s outcome hung in
the balance. But during the previous night, Skanderbeg
had some 3,000 cavalry take up position on his right and conceal themselves in the thick
forest. Despite the Albanian right flank suffering
terribly, Skanderbeg STILL held back his hidden mounted contingent, to the dismay of his officers
who struggled to keep their men from routing. But the Albanian commander understood that
striking the Ottomans from the woods on his right would only temporarily stabilize the
flank, at the cost of losing all element of surprise. Ali Pasha could then, as a matter of course,
counter this move by advancing with the third Ottoman line to win the engagement. Skanderbeg knew not to show his hand, yet! The right HAD TO hold! The stubborn Albanians stood their ground, but Ali Pasha could
see that their numbers were being ground down. Sensing opportunity for a decisive breakthrough,
the Ottoman commander gave the fateful order for his third line of reserves to join the
battle, concentrating the weight of the attack on the weakened Albanian right flank. This was the moment Scanderbeg had been waiting
for! Once Ali Pasha’s men were fully committed
and pinned in place, the Albanian general sprung his trap. Horns blazed as his concealed cavalry now
rushed to join the fight. Emerging from the woods, they galloped onto
the plain. Caught off guard, the Ottoman left shattered. Ali Pasha reacted swiftly, sending many of
his Janissaries from the center to stabilize what remained of his left. Despite being assaulted on two sides, these
elite warriors inflicted heavy casualties on the enemy and successfully stabilized the
flank. The last of the Turkish reserves poured into
the center, mauling the Albanians opposite them. However, the diversion of Janissaries thinned
out the center and the Albanians were able to counter-charge and punch through the Ottoman
line. Reacting quickly, Skanderbeg dispatched the
last of his reserves into the gap that opened up. Unable to reform their line, portions of the
Ottoman center routed for fear of being surrounded, and the Albanian left and right wings simultaneously
began closing in for the kill. Surrounded on three sides, the Janissaries
redoubled their efforts to stabilize whatever remained of the Ottoman left and center. But even these elite warriors could not stem
the tide. Soon, the Ottoman army was almost completely
surrounded, and a mass slaughter ensued. Some managed to flee, but the Ottoman front
ranks were entirely annihilated with only 300 men left standing by the end of the battle. In the chaos and confusion, Ali Pasha managed
to break out with what remained of his Janissary Corps. By the end of the day, the Ottoman army had
lost between 10 and 22,000 men, with some 2,000 more captured. Albanian losses were between 700 and 4,000. After looting what supplies they could find
in the Ottoman camp, Skanderbeg led his men back to Krujë to regroup and refit his men. He knew the Ottomans would be back. Gjerj Kastrioti had come a long way into forging
his legacy as Skanderbeg, but challenges to his dream of a unified and independent Albania
still lay ahead…
