The Samnite attempt to forge an anti-Roman
coalition had been dashed at the battle of Sentinum, and Rome’s victory at the Stellate
Plains had further weakened Samnite manpower. However, as the Roman historian Livy noted
with praise, the stubborn Samnites refused to admit defeat, preparing to fight
tooth and nail to defend their liberty.
Every Samnite warrior took an oath,
that they will fight to the death. At Aquilonia, the Romans were about to meet
their fiercest opponent yet. The consuls elected for 294 BC were Marcus
Atilius Regulus and Lucius Postumius Megellus. Having previously served as consul in 305,
Postumius had ended the Second Samnite War after winning victories in the field and capturing the
city of Bovianum. The Senate hoped that he could again force the Samnites to surrender. Indeed, the
Romans had already drawn on his experience during the Sentinum campaign, granting him propraetorial
imperium to help defend Rome and raid Etruria.
Regulus was the first to take the field,
but he was confronted by a Samnite army on a road connecting Roman and Samnite territory.
Increasingly desperate, the Samnites made the bold decision to attack the Roman camp,
using the setting sun and foggy weather to surprise and overwhelm the Roman sentries.
The Samnites seized the tent of the quaestor, whom they killed, and advanced as far as
the middle of the camp before withdrawing. Finding his position untenable, Regulus then
retreated his army to Sora, but he was soon joined by his colleague, whose departure
from Rome had been delayed by illness.
The combining of consular armies prompted the
Samnites to withdraw back to Samnium rather than risk a battle. However, the Samnites
did not adopt an entirely defensive stance, sending an army into Apulia to
besiege Rome’s ally Luceria. Regulus marched to the aid of Luceria, while
Postumius invaded Samnium, storming the city of Milionia. This prompted several other Samnite
towns to be abandoned, which Postumius occupied. Meanwhile, Regulus was intercepted by a smaller
Samnite army near Luceria and suffered a defeat. The fact that the Samnites initiated and
won this battle despite their numerical inferiority again reflected both
their desperation and their ferocity. Eventually, after restoring the morale of his men,
Regulus attacked the Samnite army while it was on the march and at a disadvantage. He surrounded the
army and forced its surrender, with 4800 Samnites killed and 7800 captured. But 7800 Romans had also
been killed over the course of the two battles. Regulus then marched against the Volcentes,
perhaps seeking a softer target.
While Regulus overcame the Volcentes,
the Samnites avoided engaging Postumius. As a result, Postumius switched
theatres of war to advance against the Etruscans. Without seeking the Senate’s
permission, he marched into Etruria, where he won an engagement against the Volsiniii
and stormed the town of Rusellae. Soon after, three of the largest states of Etruria, the
cities of Volsinii, Perusia and Arretium, sued for peace, and after each paying an indemnity
of 500,000 asses obtained truces for 40 years.
Before the end of the year, the Samnites launched
another offensive, attempting to capture the Roman colony of Interamna. Failing to take it, their
column was attacked and defeated by Regulus.
Increasingly frustrated, the leaders of the
Samnite confederacy chose to revive an ancient custom. Holding a levy, they created a force
of 16,000 men known as the 'linen legion'. This legion included Samnite nobility as well as those
distinguished for their military achievements. The priest Ovius Paccius had the warriors bound
by an ancient oath that demanded that they fight to the death. One by one, the Samnite warriors
entered an enclosure in the centre of their camp, which was shielded from prying eyes by a linen
cloth. There, each Samnite warrior approached an altar and recited the oath, which was read to them
from a book made of linen. The oath imprecated a curse on the warrior, his family, and his race
if he did not go into battle where the commanders should lead him, if he fled from battle, or if he
did not at once slay anyone whom he saw fleeing. The warrior swore not to divulge what
he saw or heard in the enclosure. Livy claims that those who refused the oath
were slain on the spot and their life devoted to Jupiter. Their bodies
were left to lie beside the altar, amongst the remains of sacrificial
victims, where they served as a warning.
Forming the core of the Samnite army, the
legionaries were given white armour, possibly linothorax, to distinguish themselves from their
comrades. They were joined by nearly 20,000 other soldiers who, Livy reports, were not inferior as
warriors. The army proceeded to invade Campania.
When the Romans elected the consuls for 293
BC, they chose two men who had not yet held the consulship but were of great promise. Spurius
Carvilius was a talented Novus Homo, and Lucius Papirius Cursor was the son of his namesake
father, one of the most successful generals of the Second Samnite War. Furthermore, the
consuls were both assigned experienced legates. Postumius accompanied Carvilius, and Papirius
was joined by Scipio Barbatus and Volumnius. Having been nicknamed ‘The Flame’ and ‘The
Violent’ for his victories earlier in the war, Volumnius would prove a valuable advisor.
Papirius raised a fresh army, and
Carvilius took over the legions of Regulus. Advancing into Samnium, Carvilius
seized the city of Amiternum, and Papirius captured the city of Duronia,
the consuls killing and capturing thousands. The Roman invasion forced the Samnite army,
including the linen legion, to return to the defence of their homeland. They encamped near the
city of Aquilonia. Papirius marched his army to their position, and Carvilius ravaged the Atinate
country before advancing on the city of Cominium. Here he made camp outside the city, about 20
Roman miles from the camp of his colleague. While Papirius skirmished with the Samnite
force, Carvilius built siege engines. Papirius intended to offer battle on the
same day as the Roman assault on Cominium.
Just as Papirius was preparing for battle, he
learned from a deserter that the general of the main Samnite army had despatched 20 cohorts,
about 8000 men, to aid the garrison in Cominium. He sent a messenger to inform Carvilius, who then
ordered Brutus Scaeva to intercept the force with the first legion and 10 auxiliary cohorts,
around 8500 men all up. However, when the Samnite detachment was only 7 Roman miles from
Cominium, the Samnite general outside Aquilonia recalled them back to their camp, as Papirius had
now drawn up his army for battle. The detachment would not make it back in time for the battle.
The close coordination of Papirius and Carvilius, and Samnite indecision, ensured that 8000 Samnite
warriors would participate in neither engagement.
The Samnite army still had around 28,000
men, whereas Papirius, commanding a standard consular army, had around 20,000. However,
conferring with Volumnius and Scipio, they drew up an ingenious plan to defeat their
enemy. Volumnius took the position of honour, commanding the army’s right wing,
whereas Scipio commanded the left. Meanwhile, a detachment of three auxiliary
cohorts was entrusted to Spurius Nautius, who was ordered to collect the mules in
the Roman baggage train. Nautius was to then lead the mules and their handlers along a
circuitous route out of sight of both armies.
As horns blared and warriors roared, the Roman
and Samnite infantry advanced into battle. Both sides were steeled for battle. Not only were
the Samnites fighting for their freedom, but they had superior numbers, and the linen legion had
sworn to fight to the death. On the other hand, the Romans could take comfort in the prestige,
talent and experience of their commanders, and after multiple victories in the field
they knew that final victory was in sight.
The Romans fought aggressively despite their
inferior numbers, forcing the Samnites onto the defensive. The flanks under Volumnius and
Scipio pressed the Samnites from both sides, and the Roman centre was also gaining
ground. The Samnites brought up the second line to regalvanise their forces.
However, as they did so, a cloud of dust arose along a rise in the ground on the flank of
both armies. It was Nautius and his auxiliaries. The auxiliary cohorts made themselves visible to
both armies. However, while not being more than 1200 in number, they raised a much larger
dust cloud than should have been the case. It was all a trick. The camp-followers mounted
upon the mules were dragging leafy boughs along the ground, and so it looked as though the
auxiliaries were leading a much larger column.
The Roman and Samnite legionaries were both
deceived, believing that Carvilius had arrived with the other consular army. Papirius
and his legates endorsed the false belief, urging their men to seize victory before
the other army could claim the credit.
Samnite morale were shaken. Moreover,
in accordance with a predetermined plan, the Roman cavalry commanders Trebonius and
Caedicius launched an attack after noting the appearance of Nautius’ force. The equites and
allied cavalry forced back the Samnite horsemen, and some of them wheeled about to attack
the flanks of the Samnite infantry. As the Samnite infantry on the flanks
turned to face the Roman cavalry, Volumnius and Scipio focused their attacks
against the fronts of these units.
The Samnites buckled and routed, their fear of
the gods yielding to their terror of the Romans. Those opposite Volumnius appear
to have been the first to break. Volumnius the Violent pursued the fleeing
enemy to their camp, which he captured. Meanwhile, Scipio pursued part of the enemy
army to Aquilonia itself and captured one of the gates from the panicking enemy. That
night the Samnites abandoned the city.
According to Livy, more than 20,000 Samnites
were killed and nearly 4000 captured, with fewer than 4000 escaping the battle. The
Romans also captured 97 of the enemy standards. According to the later historian Orosius,
the Romans killed 12,000. The modesty of the figure may render it more likely,
but Orosius was more prone to mistakes.
In addition to Papirius’ victory, on the
same day Carvilius assaulted Cominium. Having sent nearly half his army to
intercept the Samnite detachment, his remaining forces nonetheless prepared to take
the city. After covering every gate to prevent the enemy from sallying out, the Romans scaled part
of the walls and broke through one of the gates. The garrison retreated to the
forum to make a final stand, but after further fighting they surrendered.
Nearly 5000 Samnites were killed and more than 11,000 surrendered. Never had the Samnites
experienced a more disastrous day of fighting.
The Samnite detachment of 20 cohorts soon
learned of the disaster at Aquilonia, and early the next morning they beat a
hasty retreat. Harassed by Roman cavalry, the Samnites left behind 22 more
standards in their hurry to escape.
The consuls made good use of their
victories. Papirius marched towards Saepinum while being pursued by another Samnite
force. Frequently skirmishing with this force, he defeated the Samnites in a battle outside
the gates of Saepinum. Thus forcing the Samnites to submit to a siege, he stormed
the city, killing 7400 and capturing 3000.
Carvilius assaulted and captured
Velia, Palumbinum and Herculaneum. Then, prompted by renewed hostility among the
Etruscans, who were joined by the Falisci, Carvilius was ordered to invade Etruria. Here
he captured Troilum as well as five forts. The Falisci sent a delegation to Carvilius suing for
peace. They obtained a one-year truce in return for supplying a year’s pay for Carvilius’ soldiers
as well as an indemnity of 100,000 asses.
At the end of the year, both consuls
celebrated triumphs, and Carvilius, having captured 11 towns and forts, was
honoured with the cognomen Maximus.
In a final bid to defeat the Romans in the
field, in 292 BC the Samnites appointed Gaius Pontius as their supreme general, the
man who had defeated the Romans at the Caudine Forks nearly thirty years prior.
Now an elderly man, he invaded Campania. Emboldened, the Falisci also renewed
their efforts against Rome. However, the consul Brutus Scaeva, accompanied by Carvilius
as his legate, defeated the Falisci in battle. Brutus plundered the lands of the Falisci
and Etruscans, who again sued for peace, finally ending the northern theatre of war.
Meanwhile, the consul appointed to confront Pontius was Fabius Gurges, son of Fabius
Maximus Rullianus. Moreover, reacting to the threat posed by the notorious Samnite, the Senate
appointed Rullianus to serve as his son’s legate.
Gurges, desirous of winning glory independent of
his father, force-marched his army into Campania without waiting for his father’s arrival,
outpacing his own baggage train. However, the Roman column was surprised by Pontius’
Samnites, who attacked in a compact formation and inflicted a major defeat. Only the coming
of night prevented the Roman army’s destruction. Many of the wounded subsequently died because they
had marched too far ahead of the camp physicians.
Luckily, Fabius Rullianus soon arrived and
took over de facto command of his son’s army. No detailed account survives of the engagement
that followed, but in the final major battle of the Third Samnite War, the two most
accomplished generals on either side, who had both been commanding armies since the
320s, fought the last great contest in the field. The battle was hard fought, and Orosius relates
that Rullianus rescued his son from certain death. In the end, the Romans defeated the Samnites,
slaying around 20,000 and capturing 4000, including Pontius himself. If such
figures are accurate, the Romans may have surrounded the Samnite army. Pontius
was beheaded during the subsequent triumph.
The defeat of the Samnites had now become
inevitable. The Fabii spent the remainder of the year capturing the towns of the Pentri,
the most numerous of the Samnite tribes. In 291 BC Postumius Megellus captured several
towns including Cominium Ocitum and the major city of Venusia. At Postumius’ proposal, the
Senate sent 20,000 colonists to occupy Venusia. In establishing by far the largest colony to
date, and placing it in the Samnite heartland, the Romans strengthened their control over a
people on the verge of defeat. In 290 BC Rome sent both consuls to Samnium in a final push to secure
their surrender. Dentatus, the general who would later defeat Pyrrhus, and his colleague Rufinus,
defeated the Samnites in several engagements. Details of the campaign and treaty are absent,
but the Samnites finally sued for peace. They were recognised by the Romans as autonomous
allies, but they were to be subordinate to Rome and were forced to give up land as compensation.
This was not the last time that the Samnites fought the Romans. As early as 282 BC they would
rebel, and Samnite tribes later allied with Pyrrhus and Hannibal. But never again would the
Samnites be a rival to Roman hegemony.
