An Epic History TV / HistoryMarche collaboration,
supported by our sponsor, Osprey Publishing. In December 1804, in the Cathedral of Notre-Dame
in Paris, Napoleon Bonaparte crowned himself Emperor of the French. Europe had never seen such a sudden and dramatic
rise to power – a son of impoverished Corsican nobility, to military dictator of France,
in little more than 10 years. Revolution and war had cleared Napoleon’s
path to the throne… war would dominate his ten-year reign: a conflict
unprecedented in history, that would leave millions dead, and a continent in turmoil. Eight months after Napoleon’s coronation. The French Empire, and its Spanish ally were
at war with Britain, and Napoleon had assembled an army of 180,000 men along the Channel coast. But as long as the British Royal Navy ruled
the seas, invasion was impossible… But nor could Britain challenge France on
land. And so British Prime Minister William Pitt
tried to build a European coalition against Napoleon, using diplomacy and gold. Britain would prove Napoleon’s most steadfast
enemy… and its press delighted in relentless mockery of the French emperor. Britain and France were old rivals, in Europe
and overseas. But now Pitt feared Napoleon’s conquests
had made France too powerful – the French Emperor had to be defeated, and Europe’s
‘balance of power’ restored, if there was ever to be lasting peace. Pitt found willing allies in Europe: among
monarchs who despised Napoleon as a product of the French Revolution, and a dangerous
threat to the existing order. Austria harboured the deepest grievances,
having seen her influence in Germany and Italy steadily eroded by French victories. The final straw came in May 1805, when Napoleon
had also crowned himself King of Italy in Milan. Austria, Russia, Sweden, and Naples joined
Britain in an alliance known as the Third Coalition... And devised an ambitious plan for a series
of joint offensives against France. The main attack would be made by a combined
Austro-Russian army, advancing across the Rhine into France. But Napoleon got word of their plans, and
reacted with typical speed and decision. He was determined to strike first, before
the Allies could join forces, and ordered his army, now renamed ‘La Grande Armée’,
to march to the River Rhine. His target was the Austrian army of General
Mack, which had made a premature advance against Bavaria, a French ally, and was now dangerously
isolated from the other Allied armies. Napoleon ordered Marshal Murat, his famously
flamboyant cavalry commander, to make feint attacks through the Black Forest – while
the rest of his army, advancing at speed, enveloped Mack’s army from the north. That summer, Napoleon’s Grande Armée was
at its most formidable – well trained, highly motivated - its regiments at full strength. What’s more, it had been newly reorganised
according to the ‘corps’ system, later imitated by virtually every army in the world. Each corps, commanded by a Marshal, was a
mini-army of 15 to 30 thousand soldiers, with its own infantry, cavalry, artillery and supporting
arms, such as reconnaissance, engineers and transport. This meant each corps could march and fight,
for a limited time, independently. … allowing Napoleon to break with the old
doctrine, of keeping his army concentrated, and advance with his corps widely dispersed… This helped to disguise his real objective,
and increased movement speed, because the army could advance along multiple roads, and
‘live off the land’ – taking its supplies from scattered villages, rather than relying
on slow-moving supply wagons. When the enemy’s main force was located,
the army could quickly concentrate for battle. This is how Napoleon’s army was able to
move at a speed that often surprised and disorientated his enemies. Mack didn’t realise the danger he was in
until it was too late. Napoleon’s fast-moving corps crossed the
Danube behind him, and surrounded his army. Mack launched a series of poorly co-ordinated
counterattacks… but despite some desperate fighting, the Austrians couldn’t break out
of the trap. Mack desperately hoped that Kutuzov’s Russian
army could arrive in time to save him, but the Russians were still 160 miles away. And so at Ulm, on 19th October, just 6 weeks
into the war, Mack surrendered his army to Napoleon. The French took nearly 60,000 Austrian prisoners,
and Napoleon had struck his first devastating blow against the Coalition. Russian General Mikhail Kutuzov was an experienced
and wary commander, more cautious than Mack. His army was exhausted after its 900-mile
march from Russia. But hearing of the Austrian surrender at Ulm,
and knowing he wasn’t strong enough to face Napoleon alone, he immediately ordered a retreat. Napoleon pursued. The Russians fought several sharp rearguard
actions… but could not save the Austrian capital Vienna, which the French occupied
on 12th November. Kutuzov slipped away to Olmütz, in today’s
Czech Republic… where he was joined by reinforcements, as well as Emperor Alexander of Russia, and
Emperor Francis of Austria, in person. Napoleon was furious that Kutuzov had escaped. By now his army was also exhausted, and far
from home, with winter approaching. He needed to force a decisive battle, quickly. Fortunately for him, the overconfident, 27-year-old
Russian Emperor sought the glory of battle, overriding the concerns of his veteran commander,
General Kutuzov. With the Allied army closing in, Napoleon
ordered his corps to rapidly concentrate on a battlefield he’d carefully selected…
near the town of Austerlitz. Napoleon oversaw the dispositions of his army
late into the night, then grabbed a few hours’ sleep beside a camp fire. Dawn would mark the first anniversary of his
coronation as Emperor – and promised a battle that would make or break his young empire. The morning of 2nd December 1805 was cold
and bright, with a heavy mist. Two armies of near equal size faced each other
across a 7 mile wide battlefield. But the Allies held the high ground of the
Pratzen Heights, while French III Corps, under Marshal Davout, was still marching to the
battlefield. Seeing Napoleon’s thinly-stretched right
flank, the Allies planned a large-scale attack from the Pratzen Heights, to steamroller the
French right, before swinging round to envelop Napoleon’s army. Little did they know, Napoleon was counting
on his weak right wing luring the Allies into just such a move, whereupon he would launch
his own attack on the Pratzen Heights, to cut the Allied army in half. His bold plan relied on his correct prediction
of Allied movements, the speedy arrival of Davout’s III Corps on his right, and a perfectly
timed counterattack. The battle began around 7am, as Austrian troops
of General Kienmayer’s Advance Guard clashed with French troops defending the village of
Telnitz. In the face of overwhelming odds, the French
fought stubbornly and bravely… But gradually, they were forced back. But the Allies, instead of carrying out their
great, enveloping attack… did nothing. The morning mist and the late arrival of orders
had led to confusion and delay, and it was another hour before the first three Allied
columns were on the move. Soon fierce fighting erupted around Sokolnitz
village and castle. Marshal Davout’s corps, which had just force-marched
70 miles in 2 days, now arrived to strengthen the French right wing. Around 9am, his lead infantry brigade appeared
suddenly through the mist and retook Telnitz… Before being driven back in turn by Austrian
hussars. Two more of Davout’s brigades reinforced
French troops at Sokolnitz. As the mist began to clear, Napoleon saw that
as he’d hoped, the Allied left was moving off the Pratzen Heights, and he ordered Marshal
Soult’s IV Corps to begin its attack. To the alarm of Allied commanders, two French
infantry divisions, until now hidden by the mist, were suddenly seen advancing straight
towards the Allied centre. General Kutuzov was forced to hurriedly organise
a defence of the Heights using troops of IV Column. Two hours of bloody fighting followed. Musket fire was so rapid and furious that
both sides were soon low on ammunition, and turned to the bayonet. By 11am, the French, with the advantage in
training and discipline, had secured the Heights, and driven a deep wedge into the Allied position. To the north, a giant cavalry battle developed… while a Russian force from General Bagration’s
Advance Guard captured the village of Bosenitz, before it was halted by cannon fire from the
Santon hill. A decisive charge by 6 regiments of French
heavy cavalry finally drove back the Allies, allowing Marshal Lannes’ V corps to move
forward, and seize Blasowitz and Krug. Now Grand Duke Constantine, commanding the
Russian Imperial Guard, led forward this last Allied reserve, in a desperate bid to reclaim
the Pratzen Heights. A battalion of the French 4th Line Regiment
was charged down by Russian guard cavalry, losing its Eagle standard in bloody fighting. Napoleon, who’d moved up to the Heights,
sent in in his own Guard cavalry. In this grim melee between the elite horsemen
of both armies, the French finally prevailed. Napoleon had broken the Allied centre. Now to close the trap on the Allied left wing,
still locked in heavy fighting around Sokolnitz. Around 2pm, Napoleon ordered four divisions
to swing south and cut off their retreat. General Buxhöwden, commanding the Allied
left, only now saw the danger he was in. Attacked from three sides, the only escape
was south… Many of his troops were forced to flee across
frozen ponds. French artillery opened fire, trying to smash
the ice with their cannonballs. About 200 men and dozens of horses drowned
in the freezing water… but not the many thousands of Napoleon’s propaganda. The French Emperor had won a brilliant victory. His army had taken more than 10,000 prisoners,
and captured 45 enemy standards. Thousands of dead and wounded of all sides
littered the battlefield, many left untended for days. The Battle of the Three Emperors, as it became
known, was a crushing blow to the Third Coalition. As Russian forces retreated back to Russia,
Francis I of Austria was forced to accept a humiliating settlement with France, agreeing
to pay a 40-million-franc indemnity, and give up more territory in exchange for peace. But meanwhile, news had reached Napoleon of
a disastrous Franco-Spanish defeat at sea… off Cape Trafalgar. British admiral Lord Nelson, at the cost of
his own life, had masterminded a victory so complete, that it ensured British naval dominance
not just for the rest of the war, but for the next 100 years. Britain, master of the sea; Napoleon, unbeatable
on land. The whale and the elephant, neither able to
challenge the other in its own domain. When William Pitt received news of Napoleon’s
victory at Austerlitz, he’s supposed to have said, ‘Roll up that map of Europe,
it will not be wanted these ten years.’ A month later Pitt was dead, but his warning
that Europe faced another 10 years of war and upheaval… was to prove prophetic… In December 1805, at the Battle of Austerlitz,
Napoleon Bonaparte, Emperor of the French, won a crushing victory against the joint forces
of Austria and Russia. Napoleon now dominated Europe – able to
hand out spoils as he saw fit. In February 1806, he sent an army led by Marshal
Massena to overthrow the king of Naples, who’d dared to side with his enemies… and gave
his throne to his own brother, Joseph, instead. Another brother, Louis, was made King of Holland… His German allies, Bavaria and Würtemberg,
were elevated to the status of kingdoms... While Napoleon made himself ‘Protector of
the Confederation of the Rhine’ – a new alliance of German states, that would contribute
60,000 troops to his army. In recognition of the new reality, Emperor
Francis of Austria formally dissolved the Holy Roman Empire - founded by Charlemagne
a thousand years before, but now without influence or purpose. Austria had been humiliated; France remained
at war with Britain, Sweden and Russia. But in the summer of 1806, all eyes were on
Prussia. The Prussian king, Frederick William III,
regarded Napoleon with deep mistrust, and had been about to join the Coalition against
him when news arrived of its disastrous defeat at Austerlitz. He was heavily influenced by his wife, the
celebrated and popular Queen Louise, who detested France and Napoleon. She led the influential ‘War Party’ at
the Prussian court. Matters came to a head over Hanover – a
German state which had belonged to British king George III… been occupied by the French…
and given by Napoleon to Prussia, as compensation for other territorial changes. Now the Prussians learned that Napoleon had
secretly offered to give Hanover back to Britain in exchange for peace. Frederick’s advisors now persuaded him that
war was the only honourable course. But Prussia then made a basic strategic blunder…
sending an ultimatum to Napoleon without consulting its new allies in the Fourth Coalition… Their forces were too far away to help Prussia… Who would now face Napoleon’s Grande Armée
with just the small state of Saxony for support. In 1806, the Prussian army had a fearsome
reputation, that dated back 50 years to the reign of Frederick the Great. Napoleon, a student of history, regarded it
with respect. But Prussia’s army had been allowed to rest
on its laurels. Its generals were old… its staff work hindered
by bureaucracy and personal rivalries… its movements ponderous and predictable. Prussian soldiers, however, could be relied
on to fight with pride and determination; while Prussian cavalry was regarded as amongst
the best in Europe. In October 1806, Napoleon invaded Saxony with
an army of 166,000 men and 256 guns. Advancing in three columns, the French crossed
the mountain forests of the Thüringer Wald, along roads carefully reconnoitred by scouts
and spies. Napoleon intended to threaten Leipzig, and
force a decisive battle with the Prussian army, which he believed was near Gera. The Prussians were in fact further west, concentrating
near Erfurt, on the west bank of the River Saale. Its commander, the Duke of Brunswick, had
hoped to threaten the flank of Napoleon’s advance… But wrongfooted by the speed of the French,
he now ordered a retreat north to find a new defensive line. On 10th October, at Saalfeld, Marshal Lannes’
V Corps clashed with a Prussian advance guard commanded by Prince Louis-Frederick, the king’s
cousin. The Prussian force was routed, and Prince
Louis himself killed in combat with a Quartermaster of the French 10th Hussars. Three days later Lannes made contact with
a large Prussian force near Jena, and sent news to Napoleon. The French Emperor, believing he’d found
the main Prussian army, rapidly issued orders for his corps to concentrate for battle at
Jena. Bernadotte’s I Corps and Davout’s III
Corps were to cross the Saale and fall on the Prussian flank from the north. But Napoleon was wrong – Lannes faced a
35,000-strong Prussian rearguard commanded by General Hohenlohe… The main Prussian army, 52,000 men under the
Duke of Brunswick, was further north, moving straight into the path of Davout’s III Corps. The Battle of Jena began at 6.30am on 14th
October, in thick fog. Marshal Lannes’ V Corps already had a toehold
on the plateau west of the town and river. His first task was to drive back the Prussians,
and win room for the rest of the French army – arriving by the hour - to deploy. His infantry led the way, and fierce fighting
broke out for the villages of Cospeda, Closewitz and Lützeroda. Meanwhile Augereau’s VII Corps advanced
through a ravine, emerging onto the plateau on Lannes’ left flank; while Soult’s IV
Corps climbed steep tracks to form on his right. Napoleon joined Lannes in the centre of the
battlefield, organising a 25-gun battery to support the attack on Vierzehnheiligen. The village was won, but then lost to a determined
Prussian counterattack. On the right, around 10am, Soult’s infantry
secured Closewitz, but was counterattacked on its right flank near Rödigen. A decisive charge by Soult’s light cavalry
drove off the Prussians - routing their infantry, and capturing two enemy colours. As VI Corps began to arrive on the plateau,
its fearless but impetuous commander Marshal Ney ignored orders, and dived into the fighting
around Vierzehnheiligen, becoming briefly cut off by a Prussian counterattack… and
having to be rescued by Guard cavalry. General Hohenlohe was expecting the arrival
of 15,000 more troops under General Rüchel at any moment. Until then, he remained largely inactive,
shoring up his line and ordering limited counterattacks. But he had run out of time. Napoleon had begun the day with just 25,000
men. By 12.30, a steady stream of reinforcements
had brought his strength up to 96,000. As the Emperor rode past the Imperial Guard,
one young soldier, eager to be sent into action, called out ‘Forward!’ Napoleon stopped and demanded to know who’d
spoken, then rebuked the soldier as a beardless youth, who ought not to offer advice until
he too had commanded in 30 battles. But the moment had arrived. Although the Guard, to its frustration, remained
in reserve, the other French corps were ordered forward in a general attack. The Prussian army began to give ground – at
first it kept its discipline, but then disintegrated in a general rout. Murat’s cavalry were launched in pursuit,
riding down and sabreing hundreds of fleeing Prussians. General Rüchel’s two divisions finally
arrived - at the worst possible moment. They briefly held up V Corps’ advance, but
were soon outflanked, broken up by cannon fire, and charged down by French cuirassiers. Meanwhile, 12 miles to the north near Auerstädt,
Marshal Davout was marching southwest, expecting to fall on the Prussian left wing at Jena. Instead, he encountered the Duke of Brunswick’s
main Prussian army, heading north to take up new positions. Davout’s III Corps, 27,000 men and 48 guns,
was about to face odds of two-to-one… while Bernadotte’s I Corps, which had orders
to support Davout, was nowhere to be seen. Davout, nicknamed the Iron Marshal, showed
no signs of alarm. He formed his first division into a defensive
line centred on the village of Hassenhausen, his infantry forming squares to repel a series
of cavalry charges by General Blücher’s Advance Guard. His other two infantry divisions arrived to
strengthen the line, standing firm in the face of repeated Prussian attacks. But Prussian movements were slow and poorly
co-ordinated, nor did they use their numerical advantage to try and outflank Davout. At a crucial moment, the Duke of Brunswick
was shot through the eyes - a wound that proved fatal. King Frederick William himself took command. Several Prussian units remained uncommitted. But the king, convinced he faced the main
French army under Napoleon, dithered…. Around 12.15 Marshal Davout counterattacked
– the Prussian army turned, and fled. Davout had won a stunning victory against
the odds – but at a heavy price. His corps suffered 25% casualties – one
man in four killed or wounded – while inflicting twice as many losses on the Prussians. When news reached Napoleon that Marshal Davout
had engaged and defeated the main Prussian army, he reacted first with disbelief, then
heaped praise upon the ‘Iron Marshal’, later awarding him the title ‘Duke of Auerstädt’. Marshal Bernadotte, in contrast, was nearly
court-martialled for failing to support Davout. Napoleon’s army began a masterful pursuit
of the beaten Prussians, giving them no time to regather their strength. Two weeks after the twin battles of Jena-Auerstädt,
Napoleon’s troops, led by Davout’s heroic III Corps, entered Berlin. The next day General Hohenlohe surrendered
at Prenzlau... At Lübeck, General Blücher and 20,000 Prussians
were driven out of the city in heavy fighting, and forced to surrender… While 25,000 Prussians besieged at Magdeburg
surrendered to Marshal Ney. Prussia’s army had been devastated by a
Napoleonic blitzkrieg: In just 33 days, Prussia had lost 20,000 dead,
140,000 prisoners, 800 guns and 250 standards. It was a humiliation that proud Prussians
like General Blücher would neither forget, nor forgive. Unlike Saxony, King Frederick William refused
to make peace with Napoleon. He continued to hold out in East Prussia,
trusting in the approaching Russian armies to rescue his kingdom. Despite another glorious victory for Napoleon
and the Grande Armée, the war was not won yet… One week before Christmas, 1806, French Emperor
Napoleon Bonaparte arrived in the Polish city of Warsaw, then part of Prussia. A year had passed since his great victory
over the Austrians and Russians at Austerlitz, and two months since he’d hammered the Prussians
at Jena. But Russia still had powerful forces in the
field, the most important of which was the Russian First Army, commanded by General Bennigsen. Napoleon would not be master of Europe until
it was defeated, and Russia and Prussia forced to make peace. But that winter, Napoleon’s first attempt
to trap Bennigsen near Pułtusk got bogged down in thick Polish mud. The Russians withdrew to Białystok. The French army, half-starved and frozen,
was ordered into winter quarters. … while in Warsaw, Napoleon began a famous
affair with a young Polish noblewoman, Marie Walewska. In the late 18th century, the once mighty
Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth had been swallowed up by its neighbours – Russia, Austria,
and Prussia - in a series of annexations known as ‘partitions’… until in 1795, a third
and final partition wiped Poland off the map. Now Polish patriots looked to Napoleon as
their saviour – praying that his victories against their occupiers would lead to the
rebirth of a Polish state. Marie Walewska became Napoleon’s mistress
in order to further this cause. Ordinary French soldiers, however, had little
love for Poland – it was impoverished, freezing, and they missed home. Desertion rates soared. There were even a hundred cases of suicide. Marshal Ney, commanding Sixth Corps, sent
patrols towards Heilsberg, looking for better quarters. What they found were Russian and Prussian
soldiers on the move – they’d stumbled into a surprise winter attack by Bennigsen. Napoleon quickly laid a trap for the Russian
army, ordering Ney and Bernadotte to retreat, and lure Bennigsen west, while he led the
rest of the army north, to fall on his flank and rear. But the Russians captured a French courier
carrying the emperor’s orders to Marshal Bernadotte. Bennigsen, now warned of the trap, ordered
a retreat, fighting a series of rearguard skirmishes against the pursuing French. But he refused to give up the city of Königsberg
without a fight, and turned to give battle… at Eylau. The Battle of Eylau, fought over two days, was
one of the most brutal of the Napoleonic Wars, fought in freezing conditions, with neither
side backing down. Marshal Augereau’s Seventh Corps, advancing
into the face of a snowstorm, lost its way, and was cut to pieces by Russian cannon fire. Five French eagles were lost. Napoleon’s army was only saved by a devastating,
massed cavalry charge by 10,000 horsemen, led by the fearless Marshal Murat, and remembered
as one of the great cavalry charges in history. At Eylau, for the first time as Emperor, Napoleon
failed to win a clear victory on the battlefield. He and the Russians covered up the true scale
of their losses, but both sides are estimated to have lost a third of their armies in the
carnage. After the horrors of Eylau, both armies sought
time to rest and recover. Meanwhile, the newly-formed French Tenth Corps
under Marshal Lefebvre besieged Danzig, held by 13,000 Prussians under General Kalkreuth. The city came under heavy French bombardment,
and infantry assault. After 8 weeks, with no prospect of reinforcement,
the Prussian garrison surrendered on 27th May. Napoleon’s northern, sea flank was now secure
against any possible Russian landing. The French emperor now commanded an army 190,000
strong, against just 115,000 Russian and Prussian troops. But it was Bennigsen who moved first, launching
a surprise attack against Ney’s Sixth Corps on 5th June. Ney conducted a brilliant fighting withdrawal,
and escaped. Bennigsen, having lost the element of surprise,
and with Napoleon advancing, retreated once more. Four days later at Heilsberg, the French lost
10,000 men in a botched assault against Russian defences. But the Russians continued their retreat the
next day. Napoleon thought Bennigsen would head north
to Königsberg, but instead he retreated northeast, keeping to the east bank of the Alle River. So when Napoleon’s army marched north, it
was Marshal Lannes’ Reserve Corps, on his right flank, that next encountered the Russian
army… near the small town of Friedland. In the late afternoon of the 13th June, Russian
cavalry scouts informed General Bennigsen that they’d found a single French corps
at Friedland. Bennigsen decided he had time to cross the
Alle River and smash this isolated corps, before the rest of the French army could arrive
to save it, and he ordered his army to begin crossing the river. Marshal Lannes, commanding 16,000 men and
facing 46,000 Russians, sent an urgent message to Napoleon that he was under attack from
the main Russian army. Then he fought a skilful delaying action,
hiding the weakness of his force behind a large screen of skirmishers, while gradually
yielding ground to the enemy. Lannes was still holding off the Russians
as darkness fell. That night, Russian engineers built three
pontoon bridges at Friedland, to speed the movement of troops over the river. But Bennigsen was taking a huge risk. If this turned into a major battle, his army
would have to fight with its back to the river, and the steep banks of the Mill Stream dividing
its left wing from its right. Bennigsen had also badly underestimated the
speed at which Napoleon’s Grande Armée would react. The first French reinforcements arrived that
night. The Emperor himself wasn’t far behind. By dawn on the 14th June, about 40,000 Russians
had crossed to the west bank of the Alle River. Bennigsen ordered an attack on the village
of Heinrichsdorf, to turn the French left flank. But French cavalry reinforcements led by General
Grouchy intercepted the Russians… In more than an hour of charge, and counter-charge,
the French horsemen finally drove the Russians back. Marshal Mortier’s Eighth Corps now arrived
to reinforce the French centre. In Sortlack Wood, General Oudinot’s elite
Grenadier Division fought stubbornly against Prince Bagration’s Left Wing… but was
outnumbered by the Russians, and gradually pushed back. Around noon, on a sweltering day, Napoleon
himself arrived. He was soon followed by First Corps, commanded
by General Victor – standing in for the wounded Marshal Bernadotte, as well as Ney’s
Sixth Corps, and the Imperial Guard, under Marshal Bessières. The date, 14th June, held special significance
for Napoleon: it was the seventh anniversary of his great victory over the Austrians at
Marengo – a good omen, he declared. The battle then entered a lull, as Napoleon
assessed the situation, saw Bennigsen’s dangerous position, and issued orders for
an attack to take advantage of it. Bennigsen, meanwhile, who was tormented by
ill health throughout the day, saw that he now faced the full might of Napoleon’s army,
and issued orders for a retreat. But before Bennigsen’s retreat could get
underway, at 5.30pm, three salvos from the French guns signalled the start of Napoleon’s
attack. It was led by Ney’s Sixth Corps on the right
wing, who first cleared Bagration’s infantry from Sortlack Wood. But as Ney’s troops left the cover of the
trees, they came under heavy fire from Russian cannon across the river. As the French attack faltered, Prince Bagration
rallied his men, and launched a cavalry counter attack. Ney’s corps retreated. But now General Victor’s First Corps came
up on his left. Its artillery commander, General Sénarmont,
advanced with 30 guns, and blasted the Russians at point blank range with case shot. Hundreds of Russians were mown down within
minutes. Under this onslaught, Bagration’s men began
to waver, and then retreat. Around 7pm the Russian Imperial Guard launched
a desperate counterattack to try to halt the French advance on Friedland. But they were outnumbered, and outgunned. As exploding shells began to start fires in
Friedland… the French centre and left wing joined the attack. With its only escape route under threat, the
entire Russian army began a panicked retreat towards the river. But Friedland’s houses and bridges were
now ablaze. The town became a deadly trap for the Russians. Many were drowned trying to cross the river,
others killed, or captured. North of Friedland, some units were able to
escape across a ford, or along the river bank. But there was no disguising the Russians’
terrible defeat. The Battle of Friedland was one of the most
decisive victories of Napoleon’s career. At the cost of 10,000 casualties, he had inflicted
twice as many losses on the Russians – about 20,000 men killed, wounded, or taken prisoner
– 40% of Bennigsen’s army. The Prussians abandoned Königsberg the next
day, which was occupied by Soult’s Fourth Corps, while Bennigsen’s shattered army
retreated across the River Niemen, into Russia. Tsar Alexander’s advisors implored him to
make peace with Napoleon. He accepted their advice, and a ceasefire
was agreed. Alexander and Napoleon met for the first time
aboard a raft in the middle of the River Niemen, near Tilsit, and developed an immediate rapport. Tilsit proved to be one of history’s great
diplomatic summits, as the two emperors feted each other for days, with banquets, parades
and concerts, then discussed affairs late into the night. A friendship of sorts developed… whilst
Russia’s former ally, King Frederick William of Prussia, was left out in the cold. And it was Prussia who would lose most in
the Treaties of Tilsit, signed two weeks later. One third of Prussian territory was taken
away… to create the new Kingdom of Westphalia, to be ruled by Napoleon’s 22 year-old brother
Jérôme… And the Duchy of Warsaw, to be ruled by the
King of Saxony, which Polish patriots hoped would prove a stepping stone on the road to
their own state. Polish troops were recruited into the Grande
Armée, with Polish lancers even forming part of Napoleon’s elite Imperial Guard. Russia only had to give up the Ionian Islands,
as Alexander accepted an alliance with Napoleon that left the French emperor master of Europe. Alexander even agreed to join the ‘Continental
System’ – Napoleon’s economic blockade of Great Britain, which banned British ships
and goods from all French-controlled ports. The System had been established the previous
winter by Napoleon’s Berlin Decree. Napoleon hoped that by cutting off British
trade with Europe, he’d cause financial chaos and political upheaval in Britain – allowing
him to make a favourable peace. There was just one problem - the Continental
System didn’t work. Not only was it impossible to enforce, and
undermined by widespread smuggling, the system damaged French trade just as much as British
trade. The decisive weapon in this economic war would
prove to be the British Royal Navy, which that summer, ensured its continued naval dominance
by launching a pre-emptive strike against the neutral Danish fleet at Copenhagen – capturing
their warships before they could fall into Napoleon’s hands. Royal Navy squadrons blockaded all major French
ports, seizing any ships trading with France, while ensuring British merchants could continue
to trade overseas in relative safety. The navy even seized the tiny Danish island
of Heligoland, as a base for smuggling British goods into Europe. But most disastrously for Napoleon, the Continental
System would draw him into two conflicts that proved ruinous for his empire… The first would be fought in the Iberian Peninsula,
where Napoleon decided to force Britain’s ally Portugal to join the Continental System. In November 1807, French troops, supported
by their Spanish ally, invaded the country. The Portuguese royal family fled to their
colony of Brazil, as the French occupied Lisbon without a fight. It looked as though Napoleon had won yet another
easy victory. But the Peninsular War was just beginning... In the autumn of 1807, French emperor Napoleon
Bonaparte dominated Europe. He had humbled Austria… and Prussia… and
sealed an alliance with Russia. Of the major powers, only Britain still defied
him – safe from invasion thanks to its powerful navy. Napoleon had ordered all territory controlled
by France or its allies to stop trading with Britain – the so-called ‘Continental System’,
or Blockade - designed to wreck Britain’s economy and force its government to make peace. But neutral Portugal had continued to trade
with its historic ally, Britain… so Napoleon sent an army under General Junot to occupy
the country, and force it into line. The invasion was supported by France’s ally,
Spain… though privately, Napoleon held Spain’s rulers in contempt: The Bourbon royal family was decadent and
corrupt; The king and crown prince loathed each other,
while the country was effectively run by chief minister Manuel Godoy, the Queen’s lover. Spain, Napoleon concluded, was backwards,
militarily weak and incompetently governed, and devised a plan to seize control of the
country. In the spring of 1808, under the pretext of
guarding Spain against the British, French troops took up strategic positions around
the country. The Spanish people saw the French military
presence as the latest in a long line of humiliations - and held chief minister Manuel Godoy responsible. There were riots at the palace of Aranjuez;
Godoy was nearly lynched. Napoleon invited the Spanish royal family,
and Godoy, to take refuge in the French city of Bayonne, and sent Marshal Murat and 50,000
troops to restore order in Madrid. But on 2nd May 1808, the people of Madrid
rose up against Murat’s soldiers. It became known as the Dos de Mayo Uprising,
immortalised by the artist Francisco Goya. This scene shows Mamelukes of Napoleon’s
Imperial Guard attacked by the citizens of Madrid. 100 soldiers were killed. The French responded ruthlessly, shooting
down dozens in the streets, and executing more than a hundred by firing squad. Meanwhile in Bayonne, Napoleon forced King
Carlos to abdicate, and bestowed the title King of Spain on his own brother, Joseph. That summer, as Napoleon forced a new, modernising
constitution on Spain, and his brother Joseph entered Madrid as its new king – the Spanish
reacted with fury. The French weren’t just arrogant foreigners
trampling on their national honour – they were godless atheists who, during the French
Revolution, had rejected the Pope and Catholic Church. Napoleon, priests warned the peasants, was
the very Antichrist himself. Revolts erupted across the country. The Spanish army was joined by militias and
partisans, who attacked French troops and killed collaborators. French soldiers carried out savage reprisals. No mercy was shown. The countless atrocities horrified Francisco
Goya, and led to his famous ‘Disasters of War’ series. At first it seemed the French would easily
put down the revolt. Girona, Valencia and Zaragosa were besieged
by French troops… while the Spanish Army of Galicia was routed by Marshal Bessières
at the Battle of Medina del Rioseco. But eight days later, as General Dupont and
three Frenc h divisions withdrew from Cordoba, slowed down by wagons piled heigh with loot,
they were surrounded at Bailén by General Castaños’s Army of Andalusia, and forced
to surrender. The Spanish took 18,000 French prisoners - about
half of whom later died of starvation. Bailén was a humiliation for France – her
first major defeat since Napoleon became emperor. France’s enemies across Europe were delighted… Napoleon was incandescent with fury. The situation went from bad to worse. The Portuguese joined the revolt, while fierce
Spanish resistance forced the French to abandon the sieges of Valencia, Girona and Zaragoza. Spain’s new king, Joseph Bonaparte, was
even forced to flee the capital. The British assisted the revolt – which
the Spanish now called a ‘war of independence’ - by shipping weapons to Spain using the Royal
Navy. On 1st August, a small British army commanded
by Sir Arthur Wellesley landed in Portugal to aid their revolt. On 17th August, he beat a small French force
at Roliça, then four days later, beat Junot’s main army at the Battle of Vimeiro. But Wellesley’s newly-arrived superior,
Sir Hew Dalrymple, then agreed to repatriate Junot and his army to France, with all their
arms and plunder, using British ships. In Britain, the generous terms were seen as
a disgrace and scandal: a subsequent inquiry exonerated Wellesley – the future Duke of
Wellington - but Dalrymple never held command again. Napoleon decided the only way to sort out
the situation in Spain… was to go there himself. He assembled 130,000 reinforcements, including
many of his best troops… and, on 7th November, led
a second invasion of Spain. Most Spanish troops were inexperienced, were
often badly-equipped and led, and their armies had no coherent strategy. They were no match for the Grande Armée,
which burst across the Ebro River, and inflicted heavy defeats on the Spanish at Burgos and
Tudela. At Tudela, Marshal Lannes’ Third Corps avenged
the defeat at Bailén by smashing the army of General Castaños, sending it fleeing in
two directions. Napoleon pushed on rapidly. North of Madrid, 8,000 Spanish held the mountain
pass at Somosierra. Napoleon, impatient to break through to the
capital, ordered forward the Polish Light Horse of the Guard. In an attack of almost suicidal bravery, they
charged the Spanish guns head-on and enabled the French to take the pass. Four days later, after Napoleon threatened
to obliterate the city, Madrid opened its gates to his army. Unaware of the disaster engulfing Spanish
forces… a 20,000 strong British army, commanded by Sir John Moore, had just arrived in Salamanca
after a 300-mile march from Lisbon... with another smaller force en route from Coruña. The British army was inexperienced, but in
contrast to most Spanish forces, it was well-trained… organised, and led. As news reached Moore of the Spanish collapse,
he nevertheless planned to divert French forces by attacking Marshal Soult’s isolated Second
Corps, and threatening Napoleon’s communications to Burgos, and France. At Sahagun, on 21st December, the British
15th Hussars advanced overnight through winter frost, and made a dawn attack on a French
cavalry brigade, routing it in one great charge. But as Moore prepared a full-scale attack
on Soult’s corps, he received news that Napoleon was advancing rapidly towards him,
with his main army, from Madrid. While two French corps under Marshal Lannes
began a second, bloody siege of Zaragoza, Napoleon saw a chance to get to grips with
the British at last. Intending to trap Moore between his own forces
and Soult’s Second Corps, he force-marched his troops over the icy Guadarrama Pass in
the midst of a blizzard. Moore, facing odds of more than two to one,
immediately ordered a retreat, planning to march 250 miles to the coast where his army
could be evacuated by the Royal Navy. For both sides, the race to the sea was an
exhausting slog through mountains, mud and bitter cold. Many fell by the wayside, as British discipline
collapsed, leading to looting and drunkenness… Except among the rearguard, which fought several,
skilful delaying actions and kept the French at bay. Soldiers of Britain’s elite 95th Rifles
were prominent in these skirmishes. This specialised light infantry regiment wore
green uniforms for better concealment, and were one of the few units on any side armed
with rifles. Unlike the standard smoothbore musket, rifles
had spiral grooves in the barrel that spun the bullet as it was fired, making them slower
to load… but much more accurate. In one legendary incident during Moore’s
retreat, at Cacabelos, Rifleman Tom Plunkett picked out and shot dead a French general
at 400 yards – some say further. Thanks to the skill of the rearguard, and
the desperate pace of the retreat, the British kept one step ahead of the French. On New Year’s Eve, Napoleon received grave
news from Paris – rumours of plots, and Austria mobilising once more for war. The Emperor immediately left for France, taking
many of his best troops with him… and entrusted Marshal Soult and Second Corps with finishing
off the British. The pursuit continued, but on 11th January
1809, Moore’s ragged army reached Coruña. For Sir John Moore’s exhausted army the
Spanish port meant supplies, rest and the prospect of rescue. But few ships were there to meet them on the
11th. Fortunately, the British had been able to
blow up bridges behind them to delay Marshal Soult’s advance… and three days later,
on 14th January, the naval transports arrived, allowing Moore to begin embarking his cavalry
and artillery. But the very next day, Soult’s army appeared
on the hills south of Coruña, taking up positions on the heights of Peñasquedo, where he sited
his main battery of cannon. Half of Moore’s army deployed in a defensive
line two miles south of the city, with two divisions held back to protect his right flank. Both armies were roughly 16,000 strong. The French had 4 regiments of dragoons, while
the British cavalry was already aboard ship. But the broken terrain of walls, hedges and
olive trees made the battlefield ill-suited to cavalry. Soult’s plan was to attack the British right
flank, and trap Moore’s army against the sea. Around 2pm the French artillery opened fire. Then Mermet’s infantry division advanced,
supported by Lahoussaye’s dragoons on his left. Moore had been unsure if Soult would attack,
and had just ordered Paget’s division to begin embarkation. Now he hurriedly cancelled that order, ordering
Paget instead to bring up his men to reinforce his open flank, and Fraser’s division to
take up position on the heights of Santa Margarita. The French advanced through hedges and over
walls, with heavy firing from skirmishers on both sides. Then the British counterattacked. The 42nd Highlanders and 50th Foot charged
into the village of Elviña, and drove the French out. But in confused fighting… they, in turn,
were soon pushed back to their own lines. Sir John Moore was close to the front line,
observing developments, urging on officers and men. But as he ordered up the Guards brigade to
reinforce the line, he was hit in the shoulder by a cannonball. He remained conscious, but it was obvious
the wound was fatal, and he was carried back to the city. Soult sent forward Merle’s division to support
the attack on Elviña Scottish general Sir John Hope had taken over
command of the British army from the dying Moore, and he ordered forward two battalions
of infantry to meet the French attack. Now Paget’s division, led by skirmishers
of the 95th Rifles, arrived to shore up the British right flank. The terrain was so bad for horses that French
dragoons choose to dismount and fight on foot… but were slowly pushed back by the British. Paget’s advance threatened the flank of
Mermet’s attack on Elviña, and he too was forced to withdraw... while an attack on the right by Delaborde’s
infantry secured a foothold in the village of Piedralonga, but got bogged down in heavy
skirmishing. Around 6pm, dusk fell, and firing died out
across the battlefield. News that the British line had held reached
Moore shortly before he died in Coruña, around 8pm. That night, the British lit campfires and
posted sentries, then silently withdrew to Coruña, to begin embarkation. The next morning the French found the enemy
positions abandoned. But they were slow to take advantage. It wasn’t until noon that they were able
to bring up six cannon, and get them into position overlooking the bay of Coruña. The British had almost completed their evacuation
by the time the French guns opened fire. In a hurried departure, a few British transports
ran aground and two were set on fire… but overall losses were light. A small Spanish garrison held Coruña, waiting
until the British fleet had escaped to sea… before surrendering. Whether Moore’s retreat to Coruña was a
British disaster, or miraculous escape, is still debated. And did he abandon Spain in its hour of need,
or draw off Napoleon’s main force, buying time for others? Either way, Britain’s only army had been
saved… and would return to fight another day… While Napoleon now faced the prospect of a
long war on the Iberian Peninsula, and renewed conflict with Austria… a war on two fronts
that would challenge his empire like never before. Napoleon had blundered in Spain. But it was years before the scale of his mistake
was evident. Then, he would say: “I embarked pretty badly on this affair,
I admit it. The immorality showed too obviously, the injustice
was too cynical… the whole of it remains very ugly.” In 1809 France, under Napoleon Bonaparte,
was the most powerful nation in Europe. But the French Emperor’s invasion of Spain
and Portugal the previous year had failed to deliver the easy victory he’d expected. And with many of Napoleon’s best troops
and commanders now tied down in Spain… An old enemy prepared to challenge France
once more. Austria had been preparing for war with France
since her last, humiliating defeat at Austerlitz in 1805. Now, with Napoleon busy in Spain, and a British
promise of cash subsidies, plus a supporting attack in northern Europe, it looked like
the ideal time to strike. This time, Austria’s armies would be led
by Archduke Charles, Emperor Francis’s younger brother. At 37, he was two years younger than Napoleon,
but already had 15 years’ experience of high command. And he was learning from past defeats. He’d begun to reform the Austrian army along
French lines, copying Napoleon’s corps system, and introducing new infantry tactics. Napoleon, warned by his spies that Austria
was preparing for war, left Spain and raced back to Paris, arriving on 24th January 1809. The French army in Germany, commanded by Marshal
Berthier, would need urgent reinforcement. So Napoleon summoned units from Spain, called
up young conscripts, and soldiers from his German allies in the Confederation of the
Rhine. La Grande Armée was no longer the finely-honed
instrument of 1805, but with Napoleon at its head, it was still a formidable force. Archduke Charles ordered diversionary attacks
in Poland and Northern Italy, but launched his main attack against France’s ally, Bavaria,
on 10th April. It came a week earlier than Napoleon had expected,
and caught the French emperor by surprise. Charles was relying on a rapid advance, but
a last-minute change of plans, torrential rain and a slow-moving baggage train slowed
progress to a crawl. Marshal Berthier was a brilliant chief-of-staff
to Napoleon, but an indecisive field commander. His forces were too widely dispersed, and
Marshal Davout’s Third Corps was dangerously isolated at Regensburg. Charles ordered his corps to converge and
destroy it. But on 17th April Napoleon arrived at Donauwörth
to take over command. He immediately ordered Davout to withdraw
from his exposed position. It was too late for him to escape without
a fight. Davout’s Third Corps was one of the best
in the Grande Armée, and in a fast-moving battle across wooded hills, the heroes of
Auërstadt threw back the Austrians, despite the heroism of General-Major Liechtenstein,
badly wounded leading his troops forward. Third Corps escaped the encirclement. The Battle of Teugn-Hausen was the start of
Napoleon’s so-called ‘Four-Day Campaign’. First, he used Marshal Lefebvre’s Bavarian
Seventh Corps, and a provisional corps under Marshal Lannes, to drive a wedge into the
Austrian army… Then he pursued its left wing towards Landshut,
believing he was following the main Austrian army… French troops and their German allies stormed
the town’s bridge to win a hard-fought victory… But Napoleon realised that Archduke Charles
was not at Landshut, and that once again, he’d left Marshal Davout to face the main
enemy force. Sending Marshal Bessières in pursuit of the
Austrian left wing, Napoleon swung north, falling on the Austrian Fourth Korps at Eggmühl. The French, and their German allies, won their
fourth victory in as many days. But Charles’s main force was still intact
- and hoping to keep it so, he ordered a rapid retreat across the Danube. The French pursued, storming the walled city
of Regensburg, with its vital stone bridge. Napoleon put Marshal Lannes in charge of the
assault. When the attack faltered, Lannes threatened
to lead the next charge in person – and his men, suitably chastised, took the city. During the siege, Napoleon was hit in the
foot by a spent bullet, causing widespread alarm. But it proved to be a superficial wound. Stubborn Austrian resistance had allowed Archduke
Charles and his army to escape across the Danube. Napoleon had cut the Austrian army in half,
but both sections now retreated in good order towards Vienna. Napoleon led his forces in pursuit, detaching
Lefebvre’s Bavarian Corps to deal with a popular revolt in Tyrol… and Third Corps
and the Württemberg Eighth Corps to guard his line of communications. Charles chose not to defend the capital - which
surrendered on 13th May after a short bombardment. Instead Charles and the Austrian army lay
in wait, across the Danube. Napoleon was now down to 80,000 men, facing
110,000 Austrians. Charles’s army had fought bravely and well
throughout the campaign. But Napoleon still had a low opinion of Austrian
troops – and decided to attack. On the night of 20th May, French engineers
hastily built a series of floating bridges between the river islands of the Danube…
and French troops began to cross. By noon the next day, Napoleon had most of
Massena’s Fourth Corps and his cavalry across the river – about 24,000 men and 40 guns
- holding the villages of Aspern and Essling. Napoleon expected the Austrians to retreat
once more, and that he’d only face a rearguard. But reports soon arrived that the entire Austrian
army was advancing against him, in five attack columns – 90,000 men, and 300 cannon. The situation got even worse. The Austrians began to float heavy barges
and obstacles down river, to smash through the flimsy French bridge. Each time Napoleon’s only supply route was
cut off for several hours, causing critical delays to the arrival of reinforcements and
ammunition. The battle began around 2.45pm, as infantry
of the Austrian First Column attacked Aspern. The village was soon under attack from three
sides. General Molitor’s French garrison clung
on desperately, fighting hand to hand in the streets, and suffering 50% casualties. To support the defenders of Aspern, Napoleon
ordered cavalry to charge the Austrian Third Column… but they could not break through
the Austrian infantry, closed up in their ‘battalion mass’ formation. At 6pm Archduke Charles ordered General Bellegarde’s
Second Column to take Aspern at any cost. Charles himself rode among the front ranks
urging the men forward. In ferocious fighting, the Austrians took
the village. Napoleon immediately sent in newly-arrived
reinforcements to recapture it. About the same time, the Austrian Fourth Column
began its attack on the village of Essling, where Marshal Lannes had taken charge of defences,
while he waited for his own corps to cross the Danube. The first Austrian assault was repulsed. The veteran French cavalry commander, General
d’Espagne, led his cuirassiers in pursuit… but was hit by grapeshot, and died of his
wounds. Around 9pm the Austrian Fifth Column finally
arrived in position, and made its first attack against Essling, which was thrown back by
Lannes’ troops. As night fell, firing died out across the
battlefield… and men got what rest they could among the dead and the wounded. Overnight, Second Corps and the Imperial Guard
crossed the Danube to reinforce Napoleon’s army, which now numbered 71,000 and 150 guns. But then the bridge broke again, leaving Davout’s
Third Corps still waiting to cross. Nevertheless, Napoleon decided to attack,
using Second Corps to break the Austrian centre… But first Aspern would have to be retaken. Heavy fighting broke out in the village before
dawn. By 7am, it was back in French hands. At Essling, fresh Austrian attacks were fought
off by General Lasalle’s cavalry and units of the Young Guard. With both flanks secure, Napoleon launched
his main attack in the centre with Lannes’ Second Corps. Austrian guns poured fire into the advancing
French ranks. General Saint-Hilaire, leading the attack,
a hero of Austerlitz and Jena, had his foot blown off… a wound that proved fatal. Archduke Charles sent his Grenadier Reserve
forward to strengthen the line. The French infantry, under torrential fire,
began to fall back. At this critical moment, the French bridge
over the Danube was broken again, halting the vital flow of reinforcements and ammunition
to Napoleon’s army. By 2pm, the French had been driven out of
Aspern once more. Heavy fighting continued in Essling, which
was briefly captured by the Austrians, then retaken by the Young Guard. Napoleon knew his army could do no more. At 4pm, he ordered his exhausted cavalry to
make a last charge, to keep the enemy at bay, then gave the order to retreat. Archduke Charles, whose own army had suffered
huge losses and was low on ammunition, was content to watch the French withdraw to the
island of Lobau. In the final moments of the battle, Marshal
Lannes, one of Napoleon’s finest commanders and closest friends, was hit by a cannonball
that smashed both his legs. He died of his wounds a week later. It was a deep blow to the Emperor. The two-day Battle of Aspern-Essling was Napoleon’s
first major defeat, caused by his overconfidence and hasty planning. Both sides suffered heavy losses, and Napoleon
avoided a much greater disaster only because of the exhaustion of the Austrian army. The French Emperor had learned new respect
for the Austrians. Under Archduke Charles they had fought bravely,
with greater confidence, organisation and leadership. Within days of his defeat, Napoleon had summoned
reinforcements to join him on the Danube, and begun planning his revenge… In May 1809, the Austrians had defeated Napoleon’s
army in the bloody Battle of Aspern. His enemies took heart. After years of French military dominance,
it seemed the tide was turning at last. Three weeks later, Pope Pius the Seventh excommunicated
Napoleon for annexing papal land, another propaganda coup for his enemies... But in the wake of its victory, Austria hesitated…
not sure whether to seek peace or continue the war… While Napoleon responded with a hurricane
of activity. He summoned reinforcements to join him near
Vienna: The Army of Italy, under his stepson Eugène
de Beauharnais, and Eleventh Corps under Marshal Marmont, who’d together driven Archduke
John’s Austrian army out of north Italy; …as well as Marshal Bernadotte’s Saxon
Ninth Corps. Napoleon’s army grew from 90,000 to a massive
164,000 men and 544 guns, to take on Charles’s army of 128,000 and 414 guns. Six weeks after his first attempt had ended
in defeat, Napoleon ordered his army to cross the river once more. This time his engineers had built solid bridges
across the Danube – to ensure there was no repeat of the disasters of Aspern. ‘For the French army,’ Napoleon declared,
‘the Danube no longer exists.’ The stage was set for the largest battle yet
seen in European history. On the evening of 4th July, in heavy rain,
the French began crossing from the island of Lobau - not towards the devastated villages
of Aspern and Essling - but east towards Gross-Enzersdorf, which was soon ablaze from French shells. Archduke Charles had left only a small advance
guard to delay the French. By dawn General Masséna’s Fourth Corps
and Oudinot’s Second Corps were driving those troops back, winning space for the French
army to deploy. At 1pm, Napoleon was ready to begin his advance
across 6 miles of flat cornfields towards the main Austrian position: an escarpment known as the Wagram, 100 metres
behind the Russbach stream. As General Lasalle’s light cavalry and Masséna’s
Fourth Corps swung left to guard the flank, Oudinot’s Second Corps and Davout’s Third
Corps advanced towards the Wagram. Bernadotte’s Saxon corps and Eugene’s
Army of Italy filled the centre. At 6pm, unsure of the enemy’s strength,
Napoleon ordered a full-scale assault against the Wagram plateau. But his troops met determined Austrian resistance
along the line. By dusk the Saxon Ninth Corps had pushed into
the village of Deutsche-Wagram. The Saxon infantry wore white uniforms, like
the Austrians, and as darkness fell, they were mistaken for the enemy and fired on by
friendly units. The Saxons panicked, and fled with heavy losses. Napoleon’s attempt at a quick breakthrough
had failed. That night both armies slept in the open,
while Charles and Napoleon planned their next moves. On the second day, Napoleon planned for Davout’s
Third Corps to lead the attack, rolling up the Austrian flank, while his other corps
pinned down the enemy with local attacks. But to the Emperor’s fury, he learned that
overnight, without orders, Marshal Bernadotte had withdrawn his battered Saxons from Aderklaa…
which the Austrians now occupied. Aderklaa was a crucial strongpoint in the
centre of the battlefield. Napoleon gave orders for its immediate recapture,
but the French and Saxon attack failed, with heavy losses. The Austrians had their own problems. Archduke Charles, knowing he faced a superior
enemy, had decided his only chance of victory lay in an all-out, dawn attack. He was relying on his brother Archduke John
reaching him with 13,000 reinforcements, in time to support the attack on the left. But by dawn there was still no sign of him. What’s more, as Fourth Korps began its assault
on Grosshofen – on time - Third Korps, which had received its orders late, was still getting
into position, holding up the entire Austrian right wing. Charles had to tell Fourth Korps to abort
its unsupported attack, until the other korps were ready. With the Austrians paralysed by delays, at
10 am, Davout began his attack. A fierce infantry battle erupted in the village
of Markgrafneusiedl… while in the fields, dragoons and hussars fought a giant, whirling
cavalry battle, as each side tried to outflank the other. Davout’s corps took the village, though
they couldn’t stop the Austrians withdrawing to a strong new position on the Wagram escarpment. Meanwhile a serious threat had developed to
Napoleon’s left flank and rear. Klenau’s Sixth Korps had driven back the
outnumbered French, with some units advancing as far as Essling - dangerously close to Napoleon’s
vital river crossings. Napoleon urgently needed to reinforce his
left flank. But he was also determined to hold back his
reserves for a decisive attack. So he ordered Masséna’s Fourth Corps to
march across the battlefield and reinforce the left. A huge redeployment like this, right in front
of the enemy, was high-risk. So Marshal Bessières was ordered to lead
a cavalry attack straight against the enemy centre. Casualties were high. Even Marshal Bessières had his horse killed
under him, to the alarm of his men. But the enemy was kept busy, while Fourth
Corps completed its redeployment – and forced Klenau’s corps to fall back. Napoleon now assembled a grand battery of
more than 80 cannon, in the centre of the battlefield. This was one of Napoleon’s trademark tactics
– a concentration of artillery to blast the enemy line, and pave the way for a decisive
French attack. The Grand Battery fired an estimated 15,000
rounds, setting light to the cornfields. Around 1pm, Napoleon ordered a general attack. As Davout continued to batter at the enemy
flank… Fourth Corps would advance on the left… Second Corps on the right… While in the centre, General Macdonald would
lead forward 8,000 men of the Army of Italy, formed up in a giant three-sided square, to
secure his flanks. But despite the terrible French cannonade,
Austrian Third Korps and Grenadiers of the Reserve met the French advance with torrential
fire. Macdonald’s giant square was cut to pieces,
its men mown down en masse by cannon fire, and the attack stalled. But the Austrian army, battered by relentless
French attacks, was near breaking point. Every part of the line was under pressure
from the French. Archduke Charles, determined above all to
keep his army intact, ordered a retreat. The Austrian withdrawal was disciplined and
well-executed. Napoleon had his victory. But his army was also so shattered by fatigue
and heavy losses, it was unable to launch any effective pursuit. The Battle of Wagram was a brutal slugging-match,
the biggest and bloodiest battle yet seen in European history. French victory came at unprecedented cost: An estimated 37,500 casualties, against 41,500
Austrian. Four days later, French troops caught up with
the retreating Austrians at Znaim. As the fighting escalated, Charles knew he
could not withstand the French a second time, and asked for a ceasefire. But he had not consulted his older brother
Emperor Francis, who was furious when he heard the news. Not least because long-awaited British support
was finally on the way… Three weeks after the Battle of Znaim, the
largest amphibious force Britain had ever assembled – 35 ships of the line and 39,000
troops – landed at Walcheren Island, on the Scheldt Estuary. Its aim was to destroy French shipping and
naval stores. But following the successful bombardment and
capture of Vlissingen, British commanders let the initiative slip from their grasp. Their force was bottled up by French troops
on the marshy Dutch coast, where it was decimated by fever and dysentery. About 4,000 died. Many more became permanent invalids. The survivors were evacuated back to England
in December. Emperor Francis, informed of the British debacle,
and persuaded by his generals that Austria couldn’t fight on, made peace with Napoleon. In October, Austria signed the Treaty of Schönbrunn,
giving up territory to the French Empire, Bavaria, Saxony, the Duchy of Warsaw and Russia. In total, the Austrian Empire was stripped
of three and a half million subjects, forced to pay an indemnity, limit its army to 150,000
men, and join Napoleon’s Continental System, which meant ending all trade with British
ships and merchants. Archduke Charles, meanwhile – one of Napoleon’s
more skilled opponents – had fallen out so bitterly with his brother, Emperor Francis,
that he never held active command again. Napoleon had won another crushing victory. But there were worrying signs for the French
Emperor. His enemies were learning, while he would
increasingly have to rely on young conscripts to fill the gaps left by veterans killed or
wounded on campaign. Few could have guessed in 1809, but Napoleon
had just fought his last victorious campaign. If you’d like to learn more about Napoleon’s
major battles or campaigns, our sponsor Osprey Publishing has nearly 200 titles on the Napoleonic
Wars, written by specialist historians, and covering everything from the history of elite
units, to tactics, weapons and uniforms. Visit their website to find out more. Thanks to HistoryMarche for creating the battle
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Napoleon's Masterpiece: Austerlitz 1805 00:10
Napoleon Smashes Prussia: Jena 1806 16:22
Napoleon Defeats Russia: Friedland 1807 30:55
Napoleon's Great Blunder: Spain 1808 49:40
Napoleon Defeated! Aspern-Essling 1809 01:08:15
Napoleon's Revenge: Wagram 1809 01:21:39
Really? A tyrant who wanted to rule the world through military force is "great"?