It's late 16th century. After decisively defeating Safavid Persia, the Ottoman Empire turns its' war machine
towards Europe. Although officially at peace for nearly three
decades, conflict has been brewing for years along the unstable Ottoman-Austrian border. Both sides keep looking for pretexts to launch frequent, sometimes large scale raids into enemy territory. By 1591 clashes intensify along the Bosnian-Croatian border. And things finally come to a head in the summer
of 1593. The war begins on July 29th. Although officially it was the Ottomans who declared war against Austria, both empires
are in fact itching for a fight to extend their control over the Trans-danubian and
Carpathian regions. Numerous military operations mark the first years of the war, mainly for control over crucial fortresses along the Danube, with
Ottomans maintaining firm dominance on the strategic level, poised to attack Vienna from the Western Transdanubian sector, that they firmly control. But the old Austrian capital is spared when
the attack is postponed because of the death of Sultan Murad III, and the accession of
Mehmed III to the throne. Another setback for the Ottomans is the unstable situation in the Carpathians, created by harsh economic pressures imposed by the central government. Namely, because of expensive wars with Persia and Austria Ottoman Empire needs vast sums to maintain it's dominance in the Middle East and Europe. In addition, its' army needs modernizing to
keep pace with European powers. But because of the collapse of the timar system, the expensive modernization has to be financed from the palace coffers. Consequently, Ottomans impose heavy taxes in many parts of the Empire, including the Carpathian principalities. For much of the 16th century, Wallachia and
Moldavia, although nominally autonomous, are in reality oppressed Ottoman provinces. Their voivodes serve as mere tax officials
for the Sultan. In the Ottoman legal system, such vassal states
were referred to as "tax farms". However, this higher taxation isn't felt as
hard in Transylvania. In the 16th century it is the richest and
most urbanised of the three principalities, with a thriving manufacturing sector. Strategically it's in the outer reaches of
the empire, protected by the Carpathian mountains and many fortified cities. Transylvanian voivodes traditionally use this
strategic position to bargain for lower taxes and better terms overall. In contrast, Wallachia and Moldavia are less
developed. Their weaker economies are mainly structured
around agriculture and cattle breeding. Furthermore, in exchange for being allowed
to rule as vassals of the Sultan, their voivodes agree to tear down existing stone fortifications
and are forbidden from building new ones, leaving their countries exposed to the Ottomans,
who occupy fortified positions along the Danube, from where they can exert control over the
two principalities, impose much heavier taxes, and launch frequent devastating akinji raids. What's worse, Turkish population begins settling
in Valahian territory, building communities and mosques, thereby violating the treaty
of Nicopolis that prohibits this by the vassal status of Valahia. Powerless to resist, Valahian and Moldavian
nobility in turn opresses their own people throughout the 16th century, as they try to
appease the Sultan, lest they be replaced by a pretender more capable of meeting the
high taxation quotas. Economies of the two Danubian principalities
are further strained, as they are obliged to sell grain, cattle and other produce to
the Ottoman Empire at below market prices, and even this exploitation is overextended
because of long and expensive wars, as well as the ongoing modernisation of the army. Motivated by these harsh conditions, the three
princes, Sigismund Bathory, Aaron the Tyrant, and Mihai the Brave, join the Holy League. And, they promise each other to revolt on
the same day, November 13th 1594 Of the three princes, Mihai will soon come
to the fore as a military leader. Born on January 15th 1558, Mihai is the son
of the former Voivode of Valahia, Patrascu the Good and Theodora Cantacuzino. On his father's side he traces his roots back
to Vlad Dracul, the father of Vlad the Impaler, who in turn is Mihai's great-great-great-uncle. And, through his grandmother he is the great-great-grandsom
of Stefan the Great of Moldavia. On his mother's side he belongs to the Byzantine
Cantacuzino family. The prestigious family claims
descendancy from the Byzantine Emperor John VI Cantacuzenus. Little is known about Mihai's upbringing,
but in his 20's he became one of the wealthiest people in Wallachian history, holding vast estates in Oltenia, personally owning more than 200 villages. He marries a wealthy Oltenian widow with whom
he has one, possibly two sons, and a daughter. By the age of 35 he rises to political prominence,
occupying several honorable positions in the state, before eventually becomming the Ban
of Craiova in 1593. Fearing Mihai's growing power, Prince Alexander
III, the Bad, forces him to swear in front of other boyars that he is not of princely
descent. By publicly humiliating Mihai like this, Alexander hopes to remove him as a potential rival to the throne. This, however, does not settle the issue. Mihai borrows from Turkish money lenders in
Wallachia and flees the country, fearing assassination. He travels to Constantinople, where he uses
his political connections, but more importantly his Cantacuzino ancestry to secure even larger
loans and persuade Sultan Murad III to back him in his bid to the Wallachian throne. But Mihai has no intention of paying off his
debts. Upon returning he uses the borrowed money
to gain support from the boyars and is elected Prince of Wallachia on October 11th 1593. Confronted with harsh terms imposed by the Ottomans, he makes a clean break with the past Intent on taking Wallachia in a new direction,
he will make a series of controversial decisions for which he will be remembered as a heroic
leader by some, and as a treacherous tyrant by others. He replaces high ranking officials with loyal
supporters, mainly from his power base in Oltenia. And' after nearly 70 years of Princes and
boyars who were compliant towards the Ottomans, Mihai's Wallachia will fight for its' independence. The Holy League promises to support the Wallachian
revolt, knowing that it could open a second front against the Ottomans. So with his position at home consolidated
and the alliances in place, Mihai decides it is time to act. Pretending he wishes to settle financial debts,
he invites Turkish creditors and in an act of clear provocation, massacres them together
with their large escort of soldiers. With around 8,000 troops at his disposal,
Mihai then personally leads a swift attack on the key Danube crossing at Giurgiu. The town is taken and plundered but the siege
of the island fortress guarding the river-crossing fails, as troops, ammunition and provisions
are sent from the Ottoman side. Mihai returns to Bucharest after learning
from his spies that a conspiracy against him is launched by adherents to the Turks, accompanied
by a contingent of troops. He sets up an ambush for them, capturing and
executing all of the conspirators. Determined to prevent similar future inroads
into Wallachia, Mihai marches east, intent on clearing bridges and Ottoman garrisons on
either side of the Danube. He successfully besieges important Ottoman
fortifications and raids numerous towns and villages in the Lower Danube area, leaving
utter destruction in his wake, before returning back across the river. Further upstream, Mihai defeats the Ottomans
again and takes the fortified town of Silistra, before reducing it to ashes, along with the
surronding countryside. Destruction of important border fortifications in quick succession causes great concern in Constantinople. The Sultan dispatches an army from the south
under Mustafa Pasha, and redirects a strong Tatar contingent from the Hungarian front
to enter Wallachia from the west. The Tatars advance quickly towards the reported
position of the Wallachian army. Little do they know that Mihai received word
of their movement. He secretly sends a small force west to set
up an ambush, while maintaining an appearance that his entire army is encamped just north
of Giurgiu. Expecting to encounter Mihai further east,
the Tatars fall straight into a trap while marching in a loose formation, losing nearly
half of their troops. Mihai subsequently intercepts them and wipes
out their army, preventing them from linking up with Ottoman forces approaching from the
south. Meanwhile, Mustafa Pasha crosses the Danube
to confront the Wallachian prince. Aware of the enemy's numerical superiority, Mihai reacts quickly. Just four days after defeating the Tatars
he leads a daring night attack into the Ottoman camp and routs Musfata's army, forcing them
into a disorganised retreat. He defeats the Ottomans in a pitched battle,
killing general Mustafa. Mihai then embarks on a campaign of pillage
and destruction. Wallachian troops show no mercy, storming several
fortified cities, leaving countless towns and villages in ruins, with the civilian population
suffering the most. Another Ottoman general, Hasan Pasha, takes
over Mustafa's retreating army and attaches it to his own contingent. Mihai gives battle and completely destroys
Hasan's army, killing the Ottoman general, along with the Crimean Khan's son that was
accompanying him. Mihai then retreats back to Wallachia with a
vast plunder. He comes to the aid of Aaron the Tyrant in
attacking Braila, Kylia and other Ottoman positions. With the Lower Danube area and the Danube
delta secured, supply lines to the Ottoman army in Hungary are virtually cut, which significantly
slows their otherwise successful campaign against the Holy League. Mihai's renews his attack, devastating parts of northern Bulgaria, pushing deep into Ottoman territory. At one point he reaches within one day's march
from Constantinople itself, before turning back after assistance from the Holy League
fails to materialize. Many in the Ottoman capital begin refering
to Mihai as "king" and even "emperor", spreading rumors that he might take the capital at any
moment. In order to tackle possible dissent, Ottoman
authorities in Constantinople respond by expelling any non-muslims who lived in the city for
less than 5 years. Mihai's fame spreads across the continent. Many warriors, sell-swords and mercenary companies flock to join him. Ottoman scholar Selanik Mustafa writes of
the great destruction: "All of our sanjaks are captured. We are ruined." The urgency of the situation is such that
Sinan Pasha himself, the great mastermind behind the successful campaign against the
Austrians, is recalled from Hungary to organise a counter-attack on Wallachia. But Mihai has reasons to worry. While his campaign was certainly successful,
having personally led his troops in battle he saw first hand that the Wallachian army is
obsolete and in a deplorable state. Aside from contingents of Cossacks and Szekely
mercenaries, Wallachian troops are poorly equipped. There is a general shortage of horses, weapons,
carriages, tents, and even food supplies, water and fodder. Furthermore there is a problem with discipline
and basic training among the troops. At night, passwords would be called out loud
in the camps. Wallachian troops would view foreign mercenaries
with suspicion, sometimes encamping separately and refusing to cooperate with them. Mihai realises that he needs a professional
army of mercenaries if he is to have any chance at stopping the efficient Ottoman war machine. But paying salaries for thousands of mercenaries and equipping them with firearms is extremely expensive. So expensive that the entire state of Wallachia cannot afford it. Nevertheless, Mihai puts the already weak
Wallachian economy under stress in order to secure the necessary funding. He imposes much higher taxes on his subjects
than the Ottomans did previously. In addition he introduces a law that ties
peasants to their landlords' estates, in an attempt to avoid financial instability, thus
effectively enforcing servitude upon his people. He takes away the liberties of countless
free villages, turning them into dependent communities. Some communities attempt to buy their freedom
and, ironically, the constant need for funds to pay for his mercenary army forces Mihai
to accept the bribes, thereby invalidating his own laws. Needless to say, the high taxes, opressive
laws and corruption quickly make him very unpopular But Mihai considers these measures necessary. Furthermore he expands the alliance with Sigismund,
effectively becoming his vassal in exchange for substantial military support. The terms imposed by Sigismund are much worse than those Wallachia had with the Ottomans before the war. Mihai's reasoning is that he needs military
support now, and he would have agreed to any terms. With his numbers bolstered to around 15,000
Mihai takes up position the Danube. Across the river the Ottomans are amassing
100,000 combat and non-combat troops, intent on fully incorporating Valahia into the empire. Operations to cross the river begin in July,
but Mihai's guerilla tactics delay their advance by a whole month, before he is forced to retreat
when Ottomans manage to establish a bridgehead. Mihai stops his army and makes a stand near
Calugareni... It's early morning. Mihai's camp is in a narrow valley, less than
2km wide. Hills and thick forest surround the Wallachian position on two sides. Numerous streams flow down into the Neajlov
river, forming a largely impassable swamp. A single road goes across a bridge through
the swamp, connecting Giurgiu and Bucharest. Knowing that the Wallachian army is somewhere
in the valley, Sinan dispatches scouts to find fords across the swamp and stops his
column so the rest of his troops can catch up. The aggressive Mihai goes on the offensive,
wanting to engage the Ottomans while only a part of their army is present. Sinan shores up his ranks and readies the
men, just in time. The momentum of the charge initially pushes
the Ottoman line back, but Mihai surprisingly begins a fighting retreat towards the bridge
soon after. He keeps the Ottomans committed, giving more
and more ground, forcing Sinan to send more troops to prevent the vanguard from being
separated from the rest of the army. The retreat slows at a chokepoint near the
bridge. Mihai's mercenaries inflict heavy losses on
the enemy, while they continue to pull back across the river. But the Ottoman vanguard is just as eager
to press the advantage. As Sinan himself comes closer to the bridge, the Wallachian army on the other side comes into view The enemy lured him into an ambush. Mihai's cannons open fire from the other side
of the river. Ottoman troops are forced to march across
the field under a constant barrage, while the vanguard's advance grounds to a crawl
as they too are being bombarded. Seeing that some of his men are wavering,
Sinan personally rallies the troops. With their general urging them forward, Ottomans
push the enemy back. Mihai responds by ordering more troops to
descend on the crossing to hold the line. The deafening noise of the fighting drowns
out orders from captains on either side. Meanwhile, Sinan's scouts return with good
news. The way through the swamp is treacherous,
but possible. The Ottoman general siezes the opportunity
to envelop the enemy. He sends one contingent south of the bridge
and orders another to find a way through the swamp and attack Mihai's right flank. At the bridge, sparring between the two armies
continues, as neither side is able to break the stalemate. Mihai receives reports that an Ottoman contingent
is attempting an encirclement from the south. Aware that he doesn't have the numbers to
fight an open battle, Mihai reforms his left flank. He fires all of his cannons towards the approaching Ottoman cavalry. With the Valahian line supported by artillery,
Sinan's right wing abandons the attack while under heavy bombardment. At the bridge, the fighting also dies down
as the exhausted troops disengage to catch their breath. Meanwhile, Ottoman left wing is unable to
find a way through the dense swamp. Around noon Sinan launches a
full scale offensive, ordering Janissaries to attack the bridge and both flanks to envelop
the enemy. Initially it seems like the fighting near the bridge will be a repeat of the stalemate from earlier in the day. But Sinan orders trees to be cut down and
placed over the swampy river around the bridge. Janissaries take advantage of the wider crossing
and gain the upper hand. Meanwhile, some of the Ottoman artillery finally
catches up. Sinan orders most of the artillery to support
his cavalry on the right flank. Another two hours of fighting pass. Exausted, the Valahian line is on the verge
of collapse. Fearing a rout, Mihai orders an organised
retreat, abandoning 10 of his cannons to the enemy The Ottomans soon give up
their pursuit as their troops are just as exhausted after fighting for hours in the
mid-day summer heat. The afternoon wears on and a thick fog descends
on the valley. Sinan proceeds to send troops across
the river. Mihai knows he must act. A few hours later he orders a general attack,
realising that if the entire Ottoman army crosses, he will have no chance of defeating
them. He puts his best troops in the front. Sends a contingent of mounted scouts through
the woods on his left. And places the reserves in the second line,
positioning most of them on his right flank, anticipating an Ottoman envelopment from the
west. Sinan is at first unable to see the enemy
approaching, but news of the attack soon reaches him. Out from the fog come Mihai's first line of
mercenaries. In a sustained attack the Valahians try to
push the Ottomans back towards the bridge. But Sinan's troops prove their mettle and
manage to hold the line. Aware that it is only a matter of time before
the momentum of the Valahian attack withers away, Mihai puts his life on the line, attempting
to reinvigorate the men. He gathers his personal retinue and charges
to the forefront of the fighting, throwing himself into the enemy line, cutting down
several Janissaries in a matter of seconds. This brave act has an immediate impact on
the morale of his troops. The Valahian army pushes forward,
as if under a spell. Albert Kiraly positions the two cannons under
his command and fires at the Ottoman soldiers near the bridge. To the east, having weaved their way the woods
they know well, Mihai's scouts finally emerge and charge the enemy's right flank. For the first time, the Ottomans are on the
back foot. Seeing that his men are losing heart, Sinan
personally rides across the bridge to rally his men. His presence momentarily slows the Valahian
advance, but not before Mihai manages to recapture his 10 cannons. A barrage is unleashed on the mass of Ottoman
soldiers, at almost point-blank range. Meanwhile, Kiraly fires his cannons at the
Ottoman right flank. Pressed against the Janissaries and taking
heavy losses, Sinan's cavalry on the right routs, with Mihai's scouts pursuing them across
the river. Sinan joins the fighting himself and orders
an all-out charge. Ottoman troops rally around their brave general. An intense battle ensues, as neither side is willing to give in. In the melee, Sinan is thrown from his horse
into the muddy river. His troops panic, believing that their general
perished in the battle. Some take flight across the bridge, while
others risk wading through the dangerous swamp, desperate to cross the river. Amidst the chaotic fighting, it is some time
before Sinan is helped back onto his horse. He reprimands his men for running away, hurdling insults at them, demanding that they stand fight. But it is too late. What little troops remain committed won't
be able to check the Valahian advance. He orders a general retreat. Mihai doesn't give chase, still threatened
by the Ottoman left flank. But before the day ends, they too will be
routed from the field. The battle lasted for about 16 hours. Wallachian losses are fairly llight. Of the 15,000 troops under his command, Mihai
lost about 1,000 men, most of whom fell in the final charge. Meanwhile, Sinan wasn't able to bring his
full force to bear, and of the 30 - 40,000 troops that participated in the battle, between
10 and 15,000 perished. 4 pashas and 7 sanjak begs fell in battle. Much of the artillery and treasure from the
camp were lost to the enemy. But Mihai didn't enjoy his victory for long. Vastly outnumbered he realises that he cannot
continue a full-scale war against the Ottomans. And on the very night after the battle he
retreats north into the mountains where he waits for reinforcements from Sigismund and
the Holy League. Meanwhile, Sinan marches further into Wallachia. He occupies Bucharest, Targoviste and other
major cities, and begins instating the full apparatus of the Ottoman administration, preparing
Wallachia for annexation into the Empire. But the story doesn't end here... Despite his stunning victory at Calugareni,
the outnumbered Mihai retreats north, unable to stop Sinan Pasha’s advance. The two capitals fall just three days after
the battle. Wallachia, which had produced so much resistance under Mihai the Brave, looks destined to become an Ottoman province. During centuries of Ottoman domination, Wallachia
continued its’ existence as a political entity through careful management of relations
with Constantinople. Wallachian nobility usually avoided an overly
aggressive stance towards the Ottoman Empire. In most cases the voivoides accepted the suzerainty
of the Sultan and sought good relations, by paying tribute; and bribing important officials. But Wallachian voivodes have equally shown that
occupying their land would be met with harsh resistance. And since the principality lacked valuable
natural resources like gold or silver, from the Ottoman perspective it was more profitable
to keep Wallachia as a “tax farm” than to engage in costly wars and occupation. And, if not overtaxed, as was the case in
the years before Mihai’s revolt, Wallachia was generally peaceful. And for the Wallachian nobility, the “pro-Ottoman”
policies were a legitimate way to maintain their rule and keep the country free from
total occupation, even if vassalized and forced to pay high tributes. But... over the centuries some Wallachian voivodes
broke these norms and aggressively sought independence for their people. Mihai, was one of them. The Wallachian revolt he led caused a significant
disruption to Ottoman lines of communication along the Danube for their main theater of
war against the Holy League in Hungary. As a result, Constantinople moved to dismantle
and annex Wallachia in order to fully secure the logistically vital Danube line. Unaffected by the tactical defeat at Calugareni,
the Ottomans are able to replace their losses and start incorporating Wallachia into the empire. The initial military takeover is swift, as
nearly all towns have neither castles, nor stone walls. By late August, Ottoman officials are already
put in charge over large parts of the country. However, by September, Sinan’s preparations
for permanent occupation are not going well. The akinji raiders are plundering and ravaging
the country, leading to fierce local resistance and widespread instability. Wallachian rebels clash and defeat several groups
of akinji forces, most notable of which is the massacre of 5,000 raiders near Buzau. Despite these setbacks, it is only a matter
of time before the Ottomans have Wallachia firmly in their grip. Having retreated to the Bran Pass, Mihai knows
that he needs a second victory to inflict enough losses on the Ottomans if he is to
discourage further attacks on Wallachia and maybe seek a political compromise. But in the weeks following the battle of Calugareni
many Wallachian peasants leave his army to defend their homes from akinji attacks. This significantly weakens his ranks. In addition, the fall of Bucharest and Targoviste
is an indication to the nobility that Mihai had lost the war. Thus, many nobles east of the Olt river see
no reason to follow him anymore, and they too withdraw their troops. However, he still enjoys significant support
from the nobility in Oltenia, his power base. To make matters worse, despite being immensely
wealthy, bankrolling so many mercenaries depleted his funds and he finds it increasingly difficult
to pay for their services. Some leave his army to look for employment
elsewhere, but others stay as finding well paid employment in the region isn’t that
easy, because the market is flooded with cheap manpower after the destruction of the countryside
and the abandonment of many towns, as well as the ending of the harvest season, left
many looking for work. As a result of all these factors, Mihai’s
army is down to 8,000 men. And the Transylvanian reinforcements can’t
come soon enough. However, while Wallachia is being pillaged, Sigismund decides to get married before marching south. By forcing Mihai to wait until his wedding
is over, Sigismund perhaps wants to show who’s in charge. But by October, the Transylvanian voivode
finally arrives with his army. Help also comes from Moldavia. Stefan Răzvan - a highly competent military
leader and voivode, who is very popular among his men – arrives with his contingent. The three voivodes waste no time. Their combined army numbers around 32,000
men and 100 cannons. It is agreed that Mihai devise a plan for
a swift advance, aiming to attack Sinan’s position before he can fully organize his
army. At this time Sinan has up to 40,000 combat
troops at his disposal, while the rest are dispersed across Wallachia. Armies of the three voivodes advance on Targoviste. With 40 cannons the Ottoman garrison offers
stiff resistance. Over the next two days much of the town is
engulfed in flames during an intense artillery battle. The Ottoman garrison finally retreats, fearing
that their storage of gunpowder could explode. But most are eventually killed in the burning
city or taken prisoner. All 40 cannons, as well many supplies and
weapons are taken by the advancing army. Ottoman soldiers that managed to escape report
back in Bucharest. Upon learning of the approaching army Sinan decides to retreat south across the Danube and regroup. Not wanting to leave anything for the advancing
enemy, the Ottomans sack and burn Bucharest, and blow up the wooden fortifications. He reasons that it would be risky to go against
an army of that size, which includes a very strong contingent of heavy cavalry, professional
infantry armed with arquebuses and pistols, and nearly 150 artillery pieces. The retreating column is hastily organized. Sinan places himself in the font, along with
his advisers, high-ranking officers and the most valuable troops. The center of the column is rather mixed. While the akinjis, who are usually agile and
fast-moving, form the rear due to being weighed down by plunder, and slowed by thousands of slaves that they captured over the past several weeks of raiding. In order to catch the fleeing Ottomans, the
three Romanian voivodes pass by Bucharest, sending only a small Moldavian contingent
to enter the city, and continue marching on the road to Calugareni and Giurgiu. The two armies finally sight
each other. While the Ottomans are crossing the pontoon
bridge over the Danube, the three Romanian voivodes appear to the north of Giurgiu. Even before the rest of the column has arrived
the quick thinking Mihai is the first to attack. Seeing that the Ottomans are focused on crossing
the river and haven’t formed a consistent battle formation, he seizes the initiative,
and personally leads the charge, urging his men forward. He doesn’t want to give the enemy any time
to fully form their battle line. The Ottomans amass their plunder and carts
to form a barricade in order to slow down the Wallachian charge. Mihai’s contingent goes around and over
the obstacles, and clashes with the Ottoman center and right flank. Sinan’s troops on the bridge have no room
to maneuver their way back into the battle and can only keep moving forward across the
river. Meanwhile, Transylvanian arquebus-infantrymen form up in front of the Ottoman left and begin firing at will. Many are immediately cut down in a hail of
bullets. In the center, the Ottoman barricades locked Mihai in a bitter fight against the akinji cavalry. Nevertheless, the Wallachians slowly push towards
the river. Further back, Transylvanian and Wallachian cannons
are brought into position and they open fire on the retreating army. As Sinan and his most valuable troops cross
to the other side, the bridge behind them catches fire. Engulfed in flames, many soldiers jump into
the river. Minutes later, the damaged bridge collapses,
taking with it the unfortunate soldiers, horses and pack animals. Most of them drown in the Danube’s strong
currents. Across the river, the akinjis and many others
are now cut off. Unwilling to let go of the plunder and slaves
that they had captured, which are slowing them down, in the chaos some of the horsemen
are still trying to retreat across the river, unaware that the bridge had collapsed. By now they are heavily outnumbered and quickly
start suffering massive casualties. After hours of fighting the Ottomans lost
about 3000 men, while another several thousand were wounded. 6,000 slaves are freed. 150 camels, as well as much of the supplies,
weapons and artillery are left behind. Mihai got his victory. The battle of Giurgiu marked the end of the
Ottoman ambition to transform Wallachia into an Ottoman province. Moreover, the battle impacted the fate of
the akinjis as a military institution. The famous horsemen who had the mission to
plunder and weaken enemy territories were already in decline by late 16th century, but
after the battle of Giurgiu their operations became minimal, as the style of warfare across
Europe began to change. But, it’s important to note that, just as
the akinjis raided Christian lands during peace time, so too did Christian forces raid
Ottoman lands. These raids did not break peace agreements
and were practiced by both sides, almost every year. This is why the populace that lived in affected
areas hated these raiders. And on the battlefield at Giurgiu, most of
the Wallachian, Moldavian and Transylvanian troops were born and raised in areas that
were ravaged by the akinjis. Needless to say, they hated them and therefore
massacred them all, renouncing any ransom. Finally, after hours of fighting the bridge
was cleared and some of the Ottoman troops retreated to the castle of Giurgiu, which
was attacked on October 19th with 12 cannons of the Toscan artillerymen that were brought
closer to the shore. Ottoman ships tried to intervene to stop the
bombardment, but were prevented by the Wallachian and Transylvanian artillery. Two ships were eventually sunk. The Ottoman garrison in the castle made a
brave last stand, staving off several assaults while under heavy bombardment. But after many hours of fighting their numbers
dwindled, and the castle eventually fell one day later. After the battle Sinan began planning a general
invasion of Wallachia, to massacre and displace the population as punishment for their resistance. From a military standpoint this was a reasonable
and effective measure which was successfully implemented in other problematic regions as
well. But Sinan never got the chance to execute
his plans. His retreat from Wallachia was regarded as shameful. The man who had masterminded so many victories
in Hungary against the Holy League was stripped of his position as Grand Vizier. Across the Danube, Sigismund fulfilled his
duty of providing support to Mihai and retreated to Transylvania to avoid keeping his army
in the field when the snow falls, as mercenaries and vassals demanded more payment during the
winter. Razvan returned to Moldavia. But during his absence, Polish noblemen brought the pro-Ottoman pretender Ieremia Movila to the throne. Razvan fought to regain the throne, but was
defeated. With Ieremia recognized by the Sultan, Mihai became threatened by a potential Moldavian military intervention. Conflict seemed inevitable. And the war with the Ottomans also continued. But Wallachia was mostly in ruins. Many peasants fled, leaving some areas depopulated. Towns suffered massive damage. This made the collection of taxes very difficult, which further worsened Mihai’s financial situation. In order to start rebuilding the economy,
the fortress of Braila was attacked and conquered. As one of the most important ports on the
Danube, Braila immediately alleviated some of Mihai’s financial problems thanks to
the highly valuable commercial taxation. In addition, by controlling Braila, Mihai gained a strategically important position against Moldavia. He could attack and then retreat to the fortress,
while Moldavia had no fortresses in the south of the country – all of them were dismantled
on the orders of the Sultan. Ottomans responded by sending Tatar raiders
into Wallachia to attack Targoviste. Although they had the element of surprise,
the Tatars only had a narrow corridor to go through and their movement was easy to predict. Mihai intercepted and destroyed their army. Meanwhile, another operation was launched
in the west to take the fortress of Vidin, while Mihai marched south to conquer the fortress
of Nikopolis. During spring Mihai had to dismiss many of
his mercenaries as he couldn’t pay them due to lack of taxes and insufficient plunder,
and he began relying on Serbian and Bulgarian haiducs to bolster his ranks. Operations across all of northern Bulgaria
continued throughout the summer of 1596, causing massive economic damage. Another Tatar army was ordered to pass through
Wallachia and join the Ottoman army in Hungary. The Tatars sacked Buzau, Ghergita , and Bucharest,
but were defeated and chased over the Danube into Dobrudja .
Meanwhile, Mehmed III dealt a massive defeat to a combined Austrian and Transylvanian army
in the Battle of Mezokeresztes. Two more Transylvanian attacks were repelled
on the fortresses of Lipova and Timisoara, which were key for controlling the Banat region. Shaken by these defeats, Austria and Transylvania
looked to negotiate a truce. The break in hostilities opened up a possibility
for a major Ottoman invasion of Valahia, and Mihai scrambled to get more troops to prepare
for a possible attack. To raise funds for new troops Mihai introduced
dreadfully harsh measures. He essentially enslaved his own population
by forbidding all classes of serfs from leaving the estates on which they worked. This gave the boyars immense power over the
serfs that worked their land, and they imposed taxes higher than ever on the peasants in
order to make the high payments to the voivode. These measures may have been a pragmatic way
to defend Wallachia, but they squeezed the life out of the country’s poorest people. And although Mihai’s reputation was high
because of his spectacular victories against the Ottomans, these measures diminished his
popularity among his people. And in addition to heavily taxing his people,
the voivode sent a delegation to Rudolf II, asking him to pay for 4,000 mercenaries from
Imperial coffers to help fight the Ottomans. The emperor agreed, seeing this as an opportunity
to take away some of the pressure from Austria, and shift the fighting into Wallachia and northern
Bulgaria. Another hope was that Mihai would be able
to push back the Ottomans and motivate Bulgarians, Serbians and Albanians to revolt. Mihai now had a standing army of around 13,000 fighting men and he resumed his attacks all along the Danube. The devastation of the countryside, roads
and infrastructure was so severe that the bigger towns and cities in northern Bulgaria
became completely isolated and cut off from the rest of the empire. Furthermore, he transported some 16,000 Christian
Bulgarian peasants to Wallachia, whom he provided with land, aiming to increase his tax-base. But in his rear, voivode Ieremia and his nobles
were planning to overthrow and replace him with a pretender by the name of Simion, Ieremia’s
younger brother. To make matters worse, Sigismund abdicated
the Transylvanian throne due to many internal and external problems. Mihai made another proposition to Rudolf II:
the unification of Transylvania and Valahia under Mihai’s rule, in order to continue
the war against the Ottomans with the help of Transylvania’s resources. Rudolf refused and began planning to seize
Transylvania for himself. Surrounded on all sides, Mihai was forced
to seek peace with the Ottomans. He took advantage of his successes on the
battlefield and the mass destruction he caused in Bulgaria to gain favourable terms. He kept the fortresses on the Danube and was recognized by the Sultan as the ruler of Wallachia. The Wallachian voivode was now free to deal
with his Christian enemies, in order to secure his country… It’s late in the year 1599. Having signed a peace treaty with the Ottoman
Empire, Mihai gained control of all fortifications on the Wallachian side of the Danube and was
recognized by the Sultan as Voivode of Wallachia. But despite these favourable peace terms that
secured Mihai’s southern border, trouble was brewing in the north… The scheming rulers of Transylvania and Moldavia were plotting to overthrow the Wallachian voivode. It was then that Mihai laid out his political plan of unifying the three principalities under his rule... As he allowed his army to regain strength
after several months of campaigning, Mihai knew that the issue with the Ottomans was
far from settled. However, the peace treaty allowed him enough
time to address a growing problem to the north. The election of Andrew Bathory as Prince of
Transylvania, after his cousin Sigismund abdicated, was most unfavorable for Mihai. With the new Prince enjoying support from
Poland, Transylvania slipped into the sphere of influence of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, which in turn was friendly towards the Ottoman Empire. Seeking to impose suzerainty over the three
Carpathian principalities, Andrew first arranged a marriage between his half-brother and the
daughter of Yeremia Movila, who was part of the pro-Polish party already ruling in Moldavia. This made the principality a vassal of Poland,
whilst also being under suzerainty of Transylvania and paying tribute to Constantinople, all
at the same time. This concept is known as “condominium”,
a territory ruled by two or more sovereign powers. After securing Moldavia, Andrew then entered
negotiations with the Ottoman Empire, asking for the confirmation of his hereditary rule
and suzerainty over Wallachia, and began plotting to install a pretender, Yeremia’s younger
brother Simion Movila, on the Wallachian throne. The Ottomans supported this policy, deeming
Mihai a dangerous opponent. If he were removed from power it would be
much easier for the Sultan to put a new, pro-Ottoman voivode on the throne as a political puppet,
who would again pay tribute and return all fortifications along the Danube to the Ottomans. Mihai now found himself surrounded by rulers
who viewed him as a dangerous political obstacle, and it was in their political and economic
interest to replace him. To offset an invasion from Transylvania and
Moldavia that was certainly coming, the wily Wallachian voivode cunningly swore fealty
to Andrew, which gave him time to make preparations of his own. A host of 13,000 troops was ordered to gather
at Târgovişte, including 4,000 experienced mercenaries and haiducs, mostly Serbians,
Bulgarians, and Albanians. Mihai then turned to Vienna to negotiate the much needed political backing from Rudolf II, which gave his plan to invade Transylvania
considerable legitimacy. The Holy Roman Emperor hadn’t acknowledged
Andrew’s rule and it was in his interest to help the Wallachian voivode’s invasion,
seeing it as a chance to regain suzerainty over Transylvania for the House of Habsburg. In the east, Mihai created the “Banate of
Buzau and Braila”, and assigned a ban to keep an eye and react to any activity on the
Moldavian border. Then, during the first week of October, a
messenger came from Transylvania, presenting a highly provocative and insolent ultimatum. By the power of his overlordship over Wallachia,
Andrew Bathory ordered Mihai to take his entire family and leave the country. The Wallachian voivode simply sent the messenger
on his way without a reply. There would be war… Before the messenger could return to Andrew,
Mihai already set off with his army from Targoviste. In order to secure his back, the Wallachian
voivode bribed Ottoman officials in Constantinople and moved through the Buzau pass over the
mountains. In choosing this route he hoped to convince
the Szekelys to join him against Andrew Bathory, who had stripped them of their old privileges. Declaring that he is attacking Transylvania
on behalf of Rudolf II and with the promise to have their freedoms restored, several thousand
Szekely troops and a contingent of artillery came to Mihai’s banner. Further military aid came from the Transylvanian
Saxons and reinforcements arrived from Oltenia, Mihai’s power base. His army, now numbering around 20,000 men,
marched towards the fortified city of Sibiu. The city was a highly important strategic
point from where the rest of Transylvania could be controlled. To protect it from falling into Wallachian
hands, Andrew drew up in front of the city walls an army around 16,000-strong and waited
for Mihai… Neither of the two armies got much sleep during
the early hours of October 18th. The rain turned the stirred up ground in both
camps into a sticky quagmire, and the howling cold mountain wind swept down across the flat
plain. But finally, some hours after daybreak the
miserable weather cleared, and the ground hardened under the warm morning Sun as the
two armies arrayed opposite each other just south of Sibiu, near the village of Shelimbar. Out from the Transylvanian ranks rode out
a figure with the Papal standard above him. It was a diplomat by the name of Malaspina. On the behest of Andrew Bathory he tried to
exert his authority as a papal representative to convince Mihai to retreat. But the Wallachian voivode refused. Incredibly, despite facing the Wallachian
army across the field, Andrew was still confident he could negotiate Mihai’s abdication and
impose himself as the ruler of Wallachia. He only really took Mihai’s military preparations
seriously when Malaspina came back with a negative answer. At around 9 o’clock in the morning the battle began with an intense exchange of artillery fire. Mihai’s 18 guns, although of higher caliber,
initially had the wrong shot and were ineffective. Andrew, meanwhile, unleashed his 50 guns. He tried to overwhelm the Wallachians with
repeated massive volleys of cannon fire. However, when he arrayed his army earlier
in the day Mihai ordered his troops to spread out, anticipating a heavy bombardment from
the numerically superior Transylvanian artillery, thereby minimizing losses from enemy fire. In contrast, Andrew arrayed his troops shoulder-to-shoulder, in a typical battle formation, and once Mihai’s guns switched to the correct shot, the Wallachian artillery fire tore through the Transylvanian ranks. The stark contrast in leadership capabilities
started to become evident, as Mihai’s 18 guns outmatched the 50 cannon Andrew had at
his disposal. The Transylvanian Prince took heavy losses,
with many of his densely packed troops killed and maimed in the artillery exchange. A light rain finally halted the prolonged
bombardment, and Mihai took the initiative straight away. On the left, he ordered Starina Novak to lead
the attack with his experienced Serbian mercenaries and haiducs, along with Hungarian and Cossack
mercenaries on the left wing, commanded by the ban of Oltenia. On the right, Aga Leka led contingents of
Serbians and Moldavians on a delayed charge, while the Wallachians followed in the second
line. Mihai slowly advanced with the reserve, formed
by his personal retinue, court troops and another contingent of Cossacks. Seeing the onrushing Starina Novak, Andrew’s
right braced for impact. Mihai tasked the Serbian mercenaries with
punching through the enemy line. But the Transylvanian troops briefly held
the enemy from breaking through and managed to keep their formation, although they gradually
gave ground. On the other side of the battlefield, the
fighting line shifted back in forth as the savage stalemate dragged on for a couple of
hours. Nevertheless, the Transylvanian line held. On the left, Mihai’s reliance on Starina
Novak paid off as the unrelenting push of Serbian shock troops carved open the enemy
line. Hungarian mounted units poured through the
opening as the Transylvanian Prince failed to react in time to plug the gap. But one of Andrew’s captains, Gaspar Kornis,
took the initiative and surged forward with his contingent. His quick reaction stabilized the line, all
but halting Starina Novak’s push. By now the battle entered its’ third hour. Mihai’s exhausted troops on the left could
not withstand the fresh enemy reinforcements, and they fell back. Gaspar spurred the men on across the entire
battle line to push forward. The Transylvanian counter-attack had begun. Some of the Hungarian noblemen at Andrew’s
side began to cheer, thinking that they got the enemy on the run. Mihai sprang into action, seeing that the
second line of Wallachian infantry wasn’t able to stem the tide. He knew that the fighting retreat of his troops
could turn into a rout at any moment. Personally leading the charge, the Wallachian
voivode slammed into Gashpar’s contingent with his personal retinue and the Cossacks He signaled his court troops to wheel
about and focused his own attack on pinning down Gaspar’s best troops in close-quarters
to prevent them from covering the flank. Meanwhile on the Wallachian right, Aga Leka
was finding it increasingly difficult to keep his troops in line, as gaps began opening
up between Moldavian contingents. But as Mihai’s court troops swung around
the enemy line, Transylvanian troops on the right lost heart and began fleeing to avoid
being enveloped. Instead of trying to rally the troops Andrew
Bathory fled the field with his retinue. The retreat caused a chain reaction and soon
the rest of the army followed. During the subsequent pursuit, Mihai’s troops
killed several thousand enemy troops, taking many prominent nobles prisoner, among them
Gaspar Kornis. News of the defeat quickly reached the Transylvanian
capital. The nobility met to decide their next course
of action, and when Mihai triumphantly entered the city a few days later, they elected the
Wallachian Voivode as the Prince of Transylvania. Two days later the new ruler assembled the
Transylvanian Diet, demanding that the Estates swear loyalty to Emperor Rudolf, then to himself
and to his son. He now began calling himself “King” of
Transylvania and Wallachia. Meanwhile, Andrew’s troops dispersed to
avoid the wrath of the Wallachians. With his army in tatters the dethroned Prince
fled north east with only a handful of followers, intending to cross into Moldavia where he
hoped to receive support. However, as he entered one of the Carpathian
mountain passes, Szekely shepherds recognized and killed him in an ambush. Mihai knew that Andrew’s unexpected demise
was most fortunate, for had he managed to cross the mountains, the support from Moldavia
and Poland would’ve been enough to attempt to re-take the throne of Transylvania. And it was clear to Mihai that, with Poland’s
backing, Yeremia’s scheming diplomatic and military opposition would continue to pose
a serious threat to his rule. Seeing no other way than to overthrow the
Moldavian voivode, Mihai began planning an invasion. He met with Polish envoys to begin negotiations
whereby he would recognize the Polish King as his sovereign in exchange for the Moldavian
crown and the recognition of hereditary rights of his male heirs over the three principalities. Negotiations weren’t fruitful but on 14 April 1600 his troops, nevertheless, entered Moldavia. The invasion was met with only minor resistance as Yeremia was caught completely by surprise. Before even attempting to mount a resistance he fled north with his followers. The fast conquest was facilitated by the fact that, due to the Ottoman ban on building defenses, Moldavia did not have any fortresses that could slow down the invading army, with the exception of the Hotin fortress in the north. But the cause for the fast breakdown of Yeremia’s rule was the dissatisfaction of the Moldavian army, with many troops simply deserting him. Within three weeks Mihai caught up with him at Hotin. In the castle, Movila took refuge with his family and a handful of boyars. Much like the majority of the troops throughout the country, the Moldavian soldiers in the fortress deserted and joined Mihai. Left with only a small Polish garrison, on June 11th, Yeremia snuck out of Hotin under the cover of darkness. Mihai’s warring ways unified for the first time the principalities of Wallachia, Transylvania and Moldavia under a Romanian ruler. But a new dynasty controlling this new and potentially powerful kingdom has upset the balance of power in the region. The neighboring states were bound to interfere and Mihai would soon face the enormous challenge of keeping his young kingdom together… It’s a warm September morning. The town of Miraslau is abuzz, as Mihai’s
soldiers haggle and barter for provisions at the local market. But the flurry of activity is interrupted
when scouts return with news that a more numerous and better equipped army is just a few kilometers
east. On a hill just outside the town, the new King
of Wallachia, Transylvania and Moldavia stands confidently as his troops get into position. The battle that’s about to take place will
decide the fate of his kingdom… By first securing Wallachia’s safety against
the Ottomans and then incorporating Transylvania and Moldavia into his new kingdom, Mihai proved
he was a quick-thinking general who mastered all of the basics of 16th century warfare. He understood the advantages of speed and
flanking, attacking an enemy formation from two sides, and he knew how to use the terrain
to his advantage. The kingdom Mihai founded did not yet have
a national agenda and still wasn’t based on ethnical unity. Rather, by unifying Wallachia, Transylvania
and Moldavia, it is likely that he wanted to establish a new Wallachian monarchy with
himself as king, and his dynasty, the Wallachian nobility from his powerbase in Oltenia, and
Wallachian Orthodox clerics, as the ruling elite. And while it is somewhat unclear what the
name of this new kingdom would’ve been, it is clear that this was a project of Wallachian elites to expand their power over the neighboring principalities. But straight away, Mihai’s ambitious plans
were met with external and internal threats. Externally, the interests of the three neighboring
great powers were damaged by Mihai's unification. The Habsburg Monarchy wanted control over
Transylvania's resources and rich economy, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth wanted
Moldavia as their buffer state. While the Ottoman Empire wanted to restore their control over all three principalities. This placed Mihai’s kingdom under great
threat of foreign intervention, which was amplified by the fact that Wallachia and Moldavia
had almost no fortifications or castles, since the Ottomans previously forbade their construction
in order to weaken their rulers. In the event of a defeat on the battlefield
there would be no well-fortified cities that could delay an invading army for weeks or
even months. Instead, an attacking enemy could quickly
penetrate deep into Moldavia and Wallachia in a matter of days. To make matters worse, Mihai's relationship
with Rudolf became strained. Although he acknowledged Habsburg overlordship,
Mihai began calling himself "king" and continued to negotiate his official position in Transylvania. Namely, he wanted direct rule instead of being
governor in Rudolf's name, and equally claimed the Partium region as the "rightful" part
of his new kingdom. This damaged Mihai's diplomatic reputation
and, seeing that he virtually lost the support of his only major ally, all three great powers
quietly began preparing military interventions against his young realm. Internally, Mihai knew that if he could stabilize
the country by integrating the elites of Transylvania and Moldavia, the monarchy would have disposed
of considerable economic and military resources, and could become a new powerful player in
the region, capable of resisting Austrian, Polish and Ottoman interventions. But domestically he faced yet more problems. He partially merged the Wallachian and Transylvanian
councils, although the two governments remained separate, as Mihai did not want to disrupt
the successful model of Transylvania’s system of government. Moreover, he invited Szekely and other Transylvanian
Hungarians to assist in the administration of Wallachia, intending to incorporate Transylvania’s
far more advanced feudal system. Measures like forbidding drudgery for Orthodox priests shows that Mihai aimed at winning over the elites. In addition, he forced the Transylvanian Diet
to relieve Orthodox priests of feudal obligations, much to the Diet’s dismay, and gave the
Orthodox Church from Wallachia official authority over the Romanian population living in Transylvania,
which took more power away from the Diet, causing further frustration. Adding to the tension, in Alba Iulia he founded a new Orthodox Metropolis and built a church there. It is very likely that he wanted to gain support
of the Orthodox church hierarchy and maybe also their financial help. However, he never tried to improve the situation
of the Romanian population in Transylvania, which were mostly peasants, many of whom were
serfs, as it was fiscally advantageous to continue the present situation in order to
help fill the state’s coffers. Moreover, Mihai even supported the Hungarian
nobility in crushing any and all uprisings that would threaten the tax income of the
kingdom. The struggling peasants sent numerous delegations
to his court, asking for the revocation of some of the harsh measures, but taxation was
nevertheless increased more than 500% virtually overnight, from a fixed 3 florins per family
before his reign to 16 florins + obligatory food deliveries for the army. Unable to pay, many desperate peasants entered
into Mihai’s service as mercenaries or simply fled the lands of their lords, which frustrated Hungarian nobles who lost significant tax revenue. Meanwhile, the Szekelys got back their privileges,
but the Saxon townspeople were displeased with being forced to provide their ruler with
considerable financial loans. Situation in Moldavia was far worse, where
local nobles and peasants grew increasingly unhappy as some of Mihai’s unpaid mercenaries
plundered the land with impunity. With the conquest of Transylvania and Moldavia
complete, Mihai’s mercenary army again became an unsustainable financial burden, as there
were no new military campaigns to be had that could yield the plunder needed to pay the
troops. And although the kingdom possessed enough
manpower to field a 60,000-strong army, Mihai could currently mobilize only around 15,000
troops due to the unstable economy and taxation system in these early stages of his reign. Therefore, to protect the kingdom he had to
rely heavily on mercenaries which he could no longer afford. He attempted to solve the problem by awarding
several seized Transylvanian castles and important political positions to mercenary commanders
with whom he developed close relationships, as compensation for not being able to pay
them and their troops. These commanders and their troops were mostly
from Serbia, Bulgaria and Albania and they essentially became mercenary warlords who
freely oppressed sections of the local nobility and peasantry. Widespread corruption and extortion flourished
under their local rule, sowing the seeds of resistance across Transylvania and Moldavia. The Hungarian nobility undertook a revolt
to overthrow Mihai with the support from the Habsburg army commanded by an Italian General
Giorgio Basta. The rebel army marched on the Transylvanian
capital but was soon intercepted… Although the political situation in Transylvania
deteriorated significantly over the last several months, the nobles retained most of their
power and were content to accept Mihai as their ruler. But what sparked the revolt were widespread
false rumors that Mihai planned to nullify the status of Transylvanian noblemen and turn
their estates over to the Wallachian nobility. Due to these rumors, any negotiations were
out of the question, and now Mihai watched as the enemy column entered the valley north
of the Muresh river. General Basta led the Imperial troops, supported
by the Hungarian nobility of Transylvania, as well as Austrian and Saxon troops, Flemish
knights, as well as contingents of Walloons, French musketeers, artillery and mercenaries. With around 20,000 troops under his command,
Basta had both a substantial numerical advantage and the element of surprise. The sudden and unexpected revolt didn’t
allow Mihai enough time to assemble his army. Most of his mercenaries were late for the
battle, with only Starina Novak appearing with a small portion of his Serbian cavalry,
along with a contingent of Cossacks and Szekelys. With only 12,000 troops and without his best
units Mihai knew that the quality of his troops was inferior to those under Basta’s command
and he tried to offset his numerical inferiority by forming a defensive line between the Muresh
river and the hills, fortified with ditches and barricades. The Italian general moved into position where
his artillery would have range and he positioned his best cavalry in the second line, planning
to unleash them as soon as cannon fire softened the enemy line. Artillery opened the engagement. For a time the bombardment was equally effective
on both sides. But then, Mihai gave the signal, and a thundering
roar echoed from the hills above. Basta seemed stunned as enemy cannons rained
down on his position. Hungarian troops closest to the hillside and
his artillery contingent immediately took heavy losses. The cavalry in the front apparently began
wavering and Basta ordered them to pull back, realizing he would not be able to dislodge
the defenders. With victory seemingly within grasp Mihai
charged after the enemy. Subsequently, the rest of Basta’s army began
retreating. The cavalry slowly began overtaking the infantry,
wanting to get out of range of cannon fire. In battles during this period most of the
casualties were inflicted during the pursuit of the fleeing army. Needless to say, Mihai’s men went on an
extensive pursuit, sensing the weakness of Basta’s troops. But after getting well out of range of the
Wallachian artillery, Basta abruptly stopped. A flurry of orders and signals were sent out. His cavalry wheeled about and the infantry
took up a defensive formation. What first seemed like a rout turned out to
be a feigned retreat. Mihai was in trouble. With his infantry lagging behind he was caught
in the middle of the open valley. The more numerous, better equipped and more
experienced enemy cavalry bore down on his flanks, while the Italian led a frontal infantry
charge. The cohesion of the Cossacks on the right
was quickly broken by the charge of Basta’s heavy cavalry, and they began fleeing the
field. Mihai stood defiantly in the face of enemy
musket fire, but it was not enough to turn the tide and the collapse of his right flank
eventually caused a complete rout. Szekely soldiers surrendered after being assured
that they will be set free. However, Basta would later have them all killed. The defeat was catastrophic. 4,000 of Mihai’s troops perished and he
himself escaped on his horse, swimming across the Muresh river. It is not fully clear why did such a proven
commander fall into the trap of a feigned retreat. Over-confidence is often suggested as the
reason why Mihai gambled away his winning position at Miraslau. Another possibility is that, because his kingdom
was threatened on all sides, he understood that he needed to inflict as many losses on
the enemy and achieve a quick victory in order to deal with threats arising elsewhere. Whatever the case, the fallout of this defeat
would soon cause panic within Mihai’s regime. But despite being forced to retreat into the
mountains, the cunning Wallachian would live to fight another day… The sun rose above the thatch roofs of Gurusleu,
as the narrow town streets came to life on early morning of August 3rd, 1601. To the sound of church bells the craftsmen
opened their shops for customers, the town crier’s public announcements echoed on the
town square, the traders called out their wares on the local marketplace, and the main
street was awash with the smell of hot sheep’s feet and beef-ribs coming from the fast-food
stands. But then, around 9 o’clock the pleasant
morning routine was interrupted… … there was little doubt that the thundering
noise coming from across the hill was artillery fire. After the defeat at Miraslau, Mihai rushed back across the mountains to regroup. As he led some 7,000 survivors back through
the Buzau pass, messengers rode forward, carrying orders for the nobles to assemble their armies
at Ploieşti, after receiving word that Yan Zamoyski, the chancellor of the Polish-Lithuanian
Commonwealth, marched into Moldavia with an army of 17,000 troops and 10 artillery pieces,
bringing with him the brothers Yeremia and Simion Movila with the goal of overthrowing
Mihai rule in Moldavia and Wallachia. Many Moldavian nobles and peasants, unhappy
with Mihai’s rule, joined the invaders, further swelling Zamoyski’s ranks. The Polish-Moldavian army expelled Mihai's officials in Iasi. Yeremia Movila was re-instated as the voivode
of Moldavia and Zamoyski spent the rest of the month securing the loyalty of the nobility
in the northern part of the principality, in order to stabilize Yeremia’s rule and
put Moldavia’s administration back in-sync with the Commonwealth. Then, on October 1st the Polish-Moldavian
host continued towards the Wallachian frontier. The lack of fortifications and castles enabled
a quick advance south, and the local nobility had little choice but to join the advancing
army, lest they be stripped of their lands and political power. on October 10th, Zamoyski entered and occupied
Buzau. Mihai promptly marched against them. But he managed to muster a force of around
only 10,000 troops. Outnumbered almost 2:1 and without any artillery
he was defeated on October 20th by a larger and better equipped Polish-Moldavian army. Zamoyski launched extensive pursuits, aiming
to further dismantle Mihai’s remaining forces, as the invading host continued south. As the Wallachian army retreated towards Oltenia,
Mihai’s power-base, Zamoyski reached Bucharest. Simion Movila was put on the throne of Wallachia
with orders to pay a tribute of 40,000 florins per year to the Polish crown, significantly
spreading the Commonwealth’s sphere of influence in the region. Meanwhile, Mihai spent the next month preparing
for a counter-offensive and moved to reclaim the throne of Wallachia in late November. But the hastily assembled army was a far cry
from the one that brought him victories against the Ottomans and during the unification of
Wallachia, Transylvania and Moldavia. In late November, he crossed the river Olt,
only to be defeated again, losing some of his most important commanders. The defeat at Curtea de Arges prevented him
from taking a strategically important position that allows access into Transylvania through three mountain passes, accessible to marching armies. The most important nobles finally left him
and his troops scattered. Realizing he had no chance of re-taking Wallachia on his own. Mihai made the hard decision to leave his
homeland and head for Vienna, realizing that The grueling and dangerous journey lasted
over 30 days and he arrived in Vienna in mid-January. However, Emperor Rudolf refused to give him
an audience at his court. But because of the volatile situation in Transylvania, the Emperor was unsure on how to approach the matter. Basta’s governorship faced significant difficulties
in handling the Transylvanian nobility, and although Rudolf hoped that the situation will
stabilize, now he had Mihai as a possible alternative in case the political turmoil
escalated. Forced to wait for several weeks, Mihai got
his chance when the Transylvanian Diet revolted against Basta, forcing him into exile. The noblemen decided to reinstate Sigismund
Bathory, who turned his back on Rudolf and was now loyal to the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, having received from them substantial military support. Mihai’s followers were promptly persecuted
across Transylvania and severely punished. Starina Novak, one of his most outstanding
commanders, was burned alive for nearly two hours, and then impaled while still alive. With the situation in Transylvania deteriorating
fast, Rudolf reacted. 100,000 florins were provided to Mihai to
build a new army, formed by Serbian, Cossack and Silesian mercenaries, which quickly reached
10,000 troops. Another 10,000-strong army was commanded by
Basta. The Emperor ordered his two commanders to
set their differences aside, and the united army marched from Satu Mare into Transylvania. Sigismund, meanwhile, marched to meet them. The size of the Prince’s army isn’t fully
known, but according to certain sources it was about 40,000-strong, consisting of Hungarian noblemen, Moldavians, Cossacks, and Polish troops. On August 3rd, the two armies met at the town
of Gurusleu… Looking at the army that arrayed across the valley, Sigismund Bathory was understandably confident. Basta led around 5,000 cavalry and 5,000 infantry,
while Mihai commanded 4,000 cavalry and 6,000 infantry – all told their army of some 20,000,
supported by an artillery contingent, seemed no match for the host commanded by the Transylvanian
Prince. Then, with a wave of a hand Sigismund ordered
his 40,000 troops to advance. Keeping their formation, the infantry and
cavalry kept a slow pace, allowing the artillery to get into a firing position. At around 9 o’clock in the morning the battle
started with an artillery duel. The prolonged and ineffective cannonade was
interrupted when Bathory ordered a massive cavalry attack along the entire line, wishing
to come down hard on the outnumbered enemy. Transylvanian infantry and artillery followed
behind as the cavalry steamed towards Mihai’s and Basta’s line. But… what Sigismund failed to notice was
a steep grassy slope, up to a meter tall in some places, running across almost the entire
battlefield. Prior to the battle Mihai knew the that this
small slope would be vital for the outcome of the battle, and on his suggestion the army
lined up behind it. Now, as Bathory’s cavalry was closing in,
Mihai gave the signal and the entire line moved to take up position along the edge of
the slope. As he predicted, the momentum of the cavalry
was broken by the slope, helping the infantry in the center cope with the impact of the
charge. Initially, Sigismund’s cavalry proved their
mettle, inflicting significant losses on the enemy. But as jabs were traded back and forth, the
infantry in the center held. However, all this changed once the Transylvanian
infantry joined the fighting. The sheer mass of Bathory’s men pushed back
Mihai’s and Basta’s line, and slowly began grinding down their numbers in a lopsided
stand-off. From the suffocating crush in the front of
the fighting, the screams of men echoed across the narrow valley. Sensing that the tide will turn against them
if this battle of attrition continued for any longer, Mihai made a decisive move. Personally taking command of the second line
of his cavalry, he turned to maneuver his way around Sigismund’s left flank. He ordered his artillery men to position the
cannons closer to the fighting and fire at will. The cannon volleys helped support the under-pressure
cavalry in the first line and create as much chaos on Bathory’s left in order to help
cover Mihai’s flanking maneuver. Sigismund reacted by ordering his own cannons
to get into position to counter the enemy artillery fire, and sent the reserves to bolster
the attack on his left. But as the reinforcements rushed forward the
men became spread out and the speed of the Wallachian charge caught them out before they
could consolidate. Leading from the front, Mihai plowed into
the Transylvanians from the left, his cavalrymen trampling enemy soldiers, as the gaps in their formation afforded his horsemen plenty of room to maneuver. Sigismund’s reserves that were sent to support
the front line routed soon after. Seeing the chaotic retreat in front of them,
artillerymen also abandoned their posts. As the Wallachian cavalry struck the rear
of Bathory’s troops in the front, it became evident that Mihai’s charge would decide
the battle, as the surrounded Transylvanian troops began running for their lives. Having lost around 10,000 men and with all
of his cannons captured, Sigismund Bathory had no choice but to withdraw from the field… With Sigismund’s army scattered, Mihai marched
ahead and reached Cluj, where he planted a flag in honor of his captain Starina Novak,
who was executed by the Hungarian noblemen. According to orders issued by Emperor Rudolf,
Mihai was to continue on into Wallachia to re-take the throne. This was made easier by the fact that his
supporters, led by the ever loyal Buzescu family, had already overthrown Simion Movila
and sent messages to Mihai that they awaited his arrival in Targoviste. However, Mihai wanted to separate himself
from Basta and occupy Alba Iulia as his princely seat, directly against Emperor Rudolf’s
wishes. Needless to say, it was unacceptable for the
Habsburgs to allow Mihai to rule over a potentially powerful kingdom and the Emperor put in motion
a plot against his life. On Rudolf’s behest, Basta sent his men in
the morning of August 9th 1601 to Mihai’s camp. When he tried to defend himself he was struck
down with halberds and his head cut off. His body was left to lay in the field for
some time, but his followers managed to bring his head back to Wallachia, to a monastery
overlooking the former capital Targoviste from a hill – where it is still today. Mihai’s defeat was more a political than
a military one. He tried to impose the rule of his Wallachian
party in Transylvania and Moldavia over the power structures already established by the
local nobility. This caused significant resistance and finally
led to his downfall. It seems that he thought too much on a military
level, using his army as the answer to the demands of his rule. In addition, the outside pressures proved
too much as the strong monarchy that Mihai tried to create presented a problem for the
three major powers. For Austria and Poland in particular it was
strategically much more favorable to keep Wallachia and Moldavia as weak buffer states
with exchangeable voivodes, who easily agreed to pay tribute and served to absorb potential
invasions from the Ottoman Empire. It was also a question of prestige for these
powers to be the overlords of the three principalities and not equals to a potentially strong leader
like Mihai the Brave, ruling a powerful kingdom. But his brief unification of Wallachia, Transylvania
and Moldavia would go on to form the foundation of the Romanian national identity...
Opinie nepopulara: Este bine sa vedeti istoria românească spusă si din alt punct de vedere international. Istoria predata in scoli si in media a fost spălată cu prea mult patriotism si naționalism.
De exemplu Mihai Viteazul este predat ca mare patriot, primul care a unit toate ținuturile romane in Romania Mare. Mihai Viteazul a fost foarte șmecher, dar nu a avut nici un sentiment patriotism sa unească toti romanii. El și-a urmat interesul sa formeze prin cucerire un regat puternic care să reziste sa nu fie subjugat de turci, austro-ungari sau polonezi.
Regatul care l-a cucerit el nu a durat nici un an din cauza ca a deranjat puteri mult prea mari externe, si turcii si austro-ungarii. Tarile romanesti, Valahia, Transilvania si Moldova erau mici si fragmentate la vremea aia. Toată lumea cerea tribut de la ele si turcii, austro-ungarii, polonezii, isi puneau cu forta un domnitor care să servească interesele si sa le dea tribut.
Sentimentul național de a uni toti romanii din toate hotarele nu exista pe vremea aia, nici in Romania nici in oricare alta tara din Europa. Spiritul național a apărut mult mai tarziu pe la 1870 odată cu eliberarea popoarelor din Europa de est de sub turci.
Cum ar fi fost sa avem asa orele de istorie la scoala?
Nu stiam de canalul asta. E foarte fain realizat, multumesc pentru share.
Am invatat mai mult despre istoria noastra in o ora jumatate de vizionat pe youtube decat toate orele predate in scoala.
Din ce am citit in cartea lui Neagu Djuvara, Mihai Viteazul a fost foarte urat in tarile romane. Pentru a lupta in razboaie el cumpara mercenari de prin alte parti, pe care ii platea cu bani luati de la boieri (taxe). Aceste taxe impuse de Mihai Viteazul erau chiar mai mari decat tributul platit turcilor sau austro-ungariei. Viata taranilor din perioada lui a fost cea mai grea.
Din cauza asta a fost si asasinat. (poate si alte motive)
Faptul ca e un domnitor cunoscut tine de istoria predata in scoli din perioada comunista (chiar si dupa ca nu s-a schimbat mare lucru), care l-au ales drept unul dintre "reprezentantii" istoriei.
Nota 10! Cred ca sunt multi patroni din Romanica. A facut pentru noi si cateva batalii ale lui Tepes si una a lui Stefan cel Mare.
E bine asa, la mai multe!
E perfect
In orice caz, se dovedeste ca Mihai a fost foarte priceput dpdv militar si chiar "Brave" cat cuprinde...