In the mid-19th century, the two small duchies
of Schleswig and Holstein are at the centre of not one, but two wars that will change
the map of Europe. The rising forces of revolution and nationalism
help pit Denmark against the German Confederation in 1848 and again in 1864 - it’s the Schleswig
Wars. In 1815, the Napoleonic Wars came to an end,
and the Treaty of Vienna created a new peaceful order in Europe – a new order that meant
to reverse the French revolution and re-establish a Europe of kings and princes. Denmark and Norway were separated in the peace,
leaving a smaller Danish kingdom. The old Holy Roman Empire was gone, and to
replace it, the Powers created a complex German Confederation made up of independent German-speaking
states, the largest of which were Austria and Prussia. But not all the Confederation members were
German – the King of Denmark was also the Duke of Confederation duchies Holstein and
Lauenburg. The King of Denmark also happened to be the
Duke of Schleswig, which was not part of the Confederation but had a mixed German and Danish-speaking
population. These three duchies also provided about half
of the Danish Crown’s economic output – a recipe for trouble in an age of rising nationalism
in Denmark and the German lands, especially Prussia. Although the Great Powers had defeated France
and tried to erase the impact of French revolution, its ideas of modern nationalism and republican
democracy won’t go away. In 1848, revolutions sweep across much of
Europe – first in France, then in Italy, Poland, Hungary, the German Confederation
and Denmark. The revolutionaries are a diverse group: some
were liberals who wished to remove the autocracy of princes, others came from social movements
demanding better conditions for the poor, while nationalists wanted nation states defined
by common language or culture. All of these ideals clashed with the traditional
power of kings and princes. In March 1848 the revolution breaks out in
the German lands and Denmark. In Berlin, Prussian King Friedrich Wilhelm
IV’s troops open fire on protesters, killing 270, and Prussian troops also help other German
states like Baden struggle against the uprisings. The Danish Unified Monarchy (a catchall name
for the Kingdom of Denmark and the three independent duchies ruled separately by the Danish king)
faces challenges from two directions. In Copenhagen, Danish nationalists want a
more firmly defined Danish national state. They argue that Denmark ends at the Eider
river, the border between the Danish-ruled independent Duchy of Schleswig and the Danish-ruled
Duchy of Holstein, which is part of the German Confederation. The Eider Danes, as they call themselves,
claim Schleswig is part of Denmark, while Holstein could remain separate. German nationalists in Schleswig and Holstein
on the other hand take a different view. They insist that Schleswig-Holstein is a single
entity that should entirely be within the German Confederation according to a 15th century
document stating they were to be “undivided forever.” The intricacies of the problem are not lost
on British Foreign Secretary Lord Palmerston: “The Schleswig-Holstein question is so complicated,
only three men in Europe have ever understood it. One was Prince Albert, who is dead. The second was a German professor who became
mad. I am the third and I have forgotten all about
it.” (Allen 54) Danish and German nationalists each submit
a list of their demands to King Frederick VII of Denmark. The Eider Danes want a new constitution for
Denmark that would make Schleswig a part of the kingdom, and make sure the other two duchies
would still be ruled by future Danish kings. The German nationalists in Schleswig and Holstein
make a completely incompatible demand of their Duke. They want Schleswig to join Holstein as a
single member of the German Confederation. The two groups also disagree about the desired
line of succession for the future rulers of the duchies. In the end, the King adopts policies which
suit the Eider Danes. In response, German nationalists in the two
duchies announce a new provisional government separate from Denmark and in defiance of their
Danish duke. As revolution grips Denmark and Germany, there
are now two incompatible governments and national unification projects within the lands of the
Danish King and both claim Schleswig. Conflict is not long in coming. On March 24th, 1848 a unit of German Schleswig-Holsteiners
and students from Kiel under Prince Frederik of Noer occupy Rendsburg, a border fortress
between the two duchies. In the standoff that follows, local soldiers
now have a choice to make. They can march south to join the growing Schleswig-Holstein
army, or north to the Danish army. For some the decision is easy and based on
language, but for others, especially officers, it’s harder. They have to choose between their aristocratic
loyalty, and their national identity – class or nation. In some cases, brothers, fathers and sons
go different ways. Lieutenant Colonel MC von Holstein, for example,
stayed loyal to the Danish crown, his son, First Lieutenant AC von Holstein, joined the
rebels. Lace pedlar Jens Wulff describes the confusion: “[…] the whole world seems to be intoxicated,
and this accursed partisanship dominates everywhere, alas making enemies of those who previously
were friends. Woe to those who have brought this about. Germans and Danes lived so peacefully together
in times past, but now within the same country the different nationalities face each other
with enmity.” (Adriansen 13) On March 28, the Schleswig-Holsteiners request
help from the German Confederation, especially from Prussia. The Danes also ask Prussia for help, but Berlin
warns them not to move troops south. Prussian public opinion supports the rebels,
and the royal government sees an opportunity to restore its prestige after struggles with
the revolution. On April 4 Prussian and Confederation troops
enter Holstein, and the First Schleswig War, known in Denmark as the Three Years’ War,
begins. The armies fielded in 1848 number in the tens
of thousands, far smaller than Napoleonic armies. The Danish army is joined by some volunteers
from Sweden and Norway, while the local Schleswig-Holstein army fights alongside Prussians and Saxons
from the Confederation. Some Prussian troops are armed with the new
breach-loading Dreyse needle rifle, which has a much higher rate of fire than older
muskets. The Prussians also have modern C/42 cannon
– but tactics have yet to catch up to the new weapons, and commanders will have difficulty
making the most of these early industrial armaments. Prussian Foreign Minister von Arnim thinks
the whole affair will be over within days, but it isn’t so simple. After an initial Danish advance, the Prussian
forces push the Danes back in a series of battles in April and May. The Danish navy ensures that the long coastline
and capital of Copenhagen are safe, and now Russia puts pressure on Prussia not to go
too far. The Danes gather their forces and launch a
surprise attack at Dybbøl Banke on May 28, and the Prussians retreat. The two sides agree to a truce in August 1848,
but fresh fighting breaks out again in April 1849. On April 13, Confederation troops retake Dybbøl,
and a week later they capture Kolding. The Danish army manages to stop the Prussian
advance and falls back to the newly-restored Fredericia Fortress. The Prussians besiege the fort, but then the
fighting grinds to a halt. The Danish revolutionary pressures force King
Frederick to make serious political concessions during the war, and Denmark becomes a constitutional
monarchy in 1849. Meanwhile, revolution also continues in the
German states, including Prussia and Austria’s Hungarian lands. A revolutionary National Assembly in Frankfurt
dissolves the Confederation and proposes creating a single German Empire under the Prussian
king, without Austria. But King Friedrich Wilhelm IV refuses to accept
such an offer from mere commoners. Eventually, the German kings and princes are
able to suppress the nationalist rebellions back home, which means that there is less
popular support for the cause of Germans in Schleswig-Holstein. The Danes take advantage of the lull, and
sally out from the fortress to break the siege. There follows another truce. Denmark and Prussia come under more and more
international pressure to end the war, so the two states make a white peace in July
1850 - they agree to simply stop fighting each other. Schleswig remains under the Danish king, and
the Germans of Schleswig-Holstein no longer have the support of the Confederation Army. Soon after, Denmark goes over to the offensive. The 37,000 Danes under General Gerhard Christoph
von Krogh attack the isolated rebels, who have about 27,000 men under former Prussian
General Wilhelm von Willisen. The Battle of Idstedt is marked by bad weather
and much confusion, as the Danes advance on the Schleswig-Holstein defensive positions
anchored on several small lakes. Danish soldier Johannes Helms recalls the
fighting: “There was a rye field behind us, and we
could constantly see the ears fly into the air as the bullets cut the straw. I doubt that anyone, no matter how hard they
try, can keep from ducking their heads when they feel the whistle of a bullet, singing
by his ear.” (Helms, p. 105/106) British journalist William Howard Russell
recounts the moment the Danes make a general push towards mid-day on the 25th: “The Danes advanced again, and the battle
raged with more fury than ever, the artillery in the plain on all points firing incessantly. The roar of the heavier cannon, and the rush
and hiss of the balls through the air, were the only sounds that fell on the ear; the
irregular firing of the riflemen and infantry was like the rattle of a toy compared to the
clash of an enormous steam engine.” (Russell) Russell also remarks on local peasants being
forced by soldiers to bring their carts up to the front to carry back wounded soldiers. The battle of Isted is one of the bloodiest
battles in Danish history, with almost 7,000 killed or wounded on both sides. But although the Danes win the initiative,
it’s still not a decisive victory. Instead, with the troops exhausted, national
movements suppressed, and international pressure continuing, both sides agree to make peace. The First Schleswig War ends with a partial
Danish victory, and the diplomats of Europe gathered in London to sort out the peace. In August 1850, France, England, Russia, Sweden,
Denmark, Prussia and Austria meet in London to draw up a post-war treaty, which they revise
in 1852. The result is the London Protocol, which keeps
the pre-war status quo: Schleswig, Holstein and Lauenburg stay under the Danish crown
and the latter two stay in the German Confederation. Russia also pressures Austria and Prussia
into forcing the Schleswig-Holsteiners to give up the fight. The rebels reluctantly lay down their arms
in January 1851 and dissolve their self-proclaimed government. As part of this delicate process, Austrian
and Prussian administrators took on some oversight in the two confederation duchies, but not
Schleswig. The peace also restores the Danish monarchy
to its pre-war state. The national liberal government in Denmark
is disbanded in favour of a conservative one, and a new constitution is adopted under which
all three Danish duchies are considered equal and separate from each other and the Kingdom
of Denmark. The Powers also solve the succession problem
by installing their choice as heir to the Danish throne, Prince Christian of Glücksborg. The London Protocol is meant to return to
the status quo before the war, but nationalist ideas are hard to suppress. Russia is the most autocratic of the Powers,
so it doesn’t want to see nationalism gaining ground anywhere in case it spreads again – and
it doesn’t want Denmark to be too strong in the Baltic region either. For Britain and France, limiting Prussian
influence is the main achievement of the peace. In any case Prussia is also weakened in fall
1850 by its embarrassing failure to mobilize effectively against Austria in the Autumn
Crisis, which allows Austria to re-establish the German Confederation under its dominance. But despite all the upheaval, the fundamental
causes of the Schleswig war are still unresolved. By 1852, both Denmark and the German Confederation
seem at first glance to have stopped the nationalist threat and re-established their traditional
aristocratic power structures. But dreams of a German Empire remain, and
this time they will come not from a grassroots national movement, but from the top down. Despite the suppression of the revolutionaries
in Prussia, King Friedrich Wilhelm does have to make some compromises, including a new
constitution which created an elected House of Representatives. Together with the House of Lords, these two
bodies form the Prussian Parliament. In reality, the king still had overarching
powers and the ability to dissolve the parliament at will, but the House of Representatives
did have one important trump card - approval of the national budget. This causes a major headache for the soon-to-be
Prussian King Wilhelm I in 1860. Wilhelm I was a staunch traditionalist, and
held monarchical rank, etiquette and behaviour in extremely high regard. He is known to react emotionally and thoughtlessly
when he feels his royal dignity had been disregarded and he especially does not like the House
of Representatives control of his budget. In 1860, the House of Representatives rejects
Wilhelm’s army reform bill, triggering a crisis. To break the deadlock, Wilhelm appoints Otto
von Bismarck Prime Minister in 1862. Bismarck has a simple task: enforce the king’s
will. But Bismarck and other Prussian conservatives
have goals of their own. They want a new German Empire led by Prussia
along conservative lines, not liberal democratic ones – though Bismarck’s later memoirs
exaggerate his so-called plan for uniting Germany. Bismarck does hope that German unity will
come not from below as the 1848 revolutionaries wanted, but from above – and through violence: “Germany does not look to Prussia's liberalism,
but to its power. [...] It is not through speeches and majority
decisions that the great questions of the time are decided [...] - but through iron
and blood.” (Arand, 45) The Schleswig issue is a useful one for the
opportunistic Bismarck and his fellow conservatives. Liberal nationalists are using the Schleswig
question to gain electoral support, but if Bismarck could be seen to “resolve it”
he might bolster the conservative hold on efforts at national unification and push the
liberals aside. The political timing is just right for Prussian
imperialists as well. From 1857, the national liberals of Denmark
gain influence, and by 1860, they once again adopt the Eider Policy of linking Schleswig
even closer to Denmark. Tensions come to a head in November 1863. New Danish King Christian IX signs the ‘November
Constitution’ which enshrines many of the demands of the Eider Danes. As well as defining the Eider River as Denmark’s
southern border – incorporating Schleswig into the Danish kingdom – it also introduces
efforts to ‘danise’ the German-speakers of Schleswig. To the member states of the German Confederation,
this is a breach of the London Protocol. The Confederation mobilizes a combined army
according to a provision that allows it to punish members, like the King of Denmark,
who violate their duties. Troops are rushed north along the new railway
lines, and on December 23 1863, Prussian, Austrian, Saxon and Hanoverian troops marched
into Holstein and Lauenburg without a fight. Denmark and the German Confederation are on
the brink of war. As warclouds gather over Schleswig for a second
time in a dozen years, the German Confederation issues Denmark an ultimatum to withdraw the
November Constitution or face military action. Denmark refuses: the 2nd Schleswig War, also
known as the First War of German Unification, or simply 1864, has begun. Prussian and Austrian troops enter Schleswig
on February 1, 1864 – and their commanders want a quick victory before the other Great
Powers can intervene. The Austro-Prussians field about 60,000 men,
with reinforcements on the way, while the Danes have about 38,000 men. The Prussian artillery now also boasts some
4 and 6 pounder breech-loading steel cannon, partially thanks to the political connections
of arms manufacturer Alfred Krupp. One Berlin newspaper is already calling him
the Kanonenkönig, the Cannon King. But Prussian officers are still divided on
how best to organize the artillery, and whether breech or muzzle loaders, or rifled or smoothbore
guns are best. Prussian infantry still uses the quick-firing
Dreyse rifle, superior to the Danish muzzle-loaders. Denmark’s initial strategy involves holding
three flank positions at Ebeltoft in the north, Fredericia in the center and in the south. They want to defend Jutland along a north-south
axis, with the goal of exhausting the enemy in fruitless north-south marches, before using
Denmark’s superior navy to quickly land troops for counterattacks. But perceived political necessity trumps military
wisdom. Danish politicians overrule their generals
and insist on defending the Danevirke, an ancient defensive line. In early February, Prussian and Danish troops
attempt to breach the line, but the Danes repel them at the Battle of Mysunde. The Danes expect the navy to protect the extreme
flanks of the line, however the ice created by an exceptionally cold winter keeps the
navy at a distance. The Prussians realize this and begin to cross
the frozen marshland around the Schlei River, while Austrians breach the Danish line at
Königshügel. Danish commander Christian Julius de Meza
recognizes the threat and orders his troops back to Dybbøl on February 5. His decision likely saves a part of the army,
but the Danish government is upset at the reverse – they sack de Meza and replace
him with General Gerlach. Dybbøl - the site of major fighting in the
first Schleswig War - once again becomes a bloody battlefield. The Prussians slowly surround the fortress
and bombard it for two months, culminating in a barrage of 4700 shells on the final day. Many of the older fortifications are now rubble,
and the Prussian troops attack on April 18, 1864. Gerlach asks Copenhagen for permission to
withdraw, but the Danish Prime Minister and his defence minister refuse. They tell Gerlach to hold the line at any
cost. The Prussians outnumber the Danes by roughly
two to one, and within 30 minutes the Germans force the Danes out of their trenches and
redoubts and towards the Dybbøl mill. But as the Prussians press the pursuit, the
Danish 8th Brigade counterattacks supported by naval fire. Danish officer Adolph Wilhelm Dinesen recalls
the impact: “The entire line charged forward, over stock
and stone, through marshes and puddles, over fences and dykes, through iron and lead, only
forward! Towards the enemy. … [We] charged the mill from all sides,
shot and trampled everyone who resisted, and pursued the horrified enemies into the building
itself. There was not enough space to aim or use the
bayonet here; you dropped the rifles, drew the sabres, and fought with fists… Smoke and blood, the noise of weapons and
screams filled the yard.” (Lund 253) The counter-attack gives fleeing Danish units
time to cross over the pontoon bridges to Sønderborg. But then another Prussian charge pushes the
8th Brigade back with heavy casualties. Dinesen survives: “The Prussian charge is overwhelming. Complete destruction… When the mill falls, we are just outside,
locked in a firefight with the enemy. We know we will not be able to hold out much
longer… and we are beginning to receive enfilade fire… We soon understand that the Battle of Dybbøl
has come to an end.” (Buk-Swienty, 287/288) Around 2000 Danish soldiers are killed or
wounded at Duebbel - approximately 10% of the entire Danish army at the time. It is the turning point in the war. Bismarck offers to negotiate, so both sides
declare a truce in July and meet in London. Bismarck offers Denmark the northern, predominantly
Danish part of Schleswig, in exchange for the south. But the Danish government refuses and maintains
its policy of Denmark to the Eider river. King Christian suggests that Denmark join
the German Confederation in its entirety, but Bismarck turns him down. The Prussian Chancellor has no interest in
incorporating a large, potentially troublesome minority into a future German empire. And so, the short-lived truce after the Prussian
victory at Dybbøl, expires and the fighting resumes. The Austro-Prussians agree on a new plan:
to occupy Jutland and completely remove the disputed duchies from Danish control. On June 29, Prussian forces cross onto the
island of Als where the remnants of the Danish army are sheltering. Under heavy supporting fire, the Prussian
take the Danish trenches in a night attack, and after a series of short, sharp skirmishes,
the Danes surrender. The Battle of Als is the last significant
battle of the war. Soon afterwards the Austro-Prussians occupy
all of Jutland, which forces the Danes back to the negotiating table. All told, bout 10,000 men have been killed
or wounded. This time, Austro-Prussian demands are not
about compromise. They demand the separation of Schleswig, Holstein,
and Lauenburg from the Danish crown - and King Christian has no choice but to accept. Denmark loses the Second Schleswig War for
several reasons. Firstly, a sense of superiority resulting
from their victory in the first war led to overconfidence, especially amongst the political
class. These politicians often overruled the advice
of commanders on the ground, which hurt the army’s performance. Secondly, the Danes hoped if they could hold
on long enough, the great powers would once again intervene to their benefit, just as
Britain and Russia had done in 1850. But by 1864, the European geopolitical situation
has changed. For one, the Britain is closer to Prussia
after the marriage of Queen Victoria’s daughter to Crown Prince Frederick Wilhelm of Prussia
in 1858. For another, Russia is less influential. Its humiliating defeat in the Crimean War
in the 1850s had reduced its prestige and in any case, it owed Prussia for helping put
down a Polish rebellion in 1863. In the end, the three duchies would be jointly
administered by Austria and Prussia under the ‘Gastein Convention’. Prussia oversees Schleswig and Austria Holstein,
although Kiel - located in Holstein - becomes a federal port under Prussian control. Prussia then buys Lauenburg from the Austrians
for 2.5 million Danish Reichsthaler, whereupon Bismarck himself becomes duke. The Gastein Convention though is a fragile
arrangement. Prussia and Austria have completely different
ideas for their new duchies. Prussia wants to annex them, while Austria
wants them to remain independent. Bismarck sees the convention as a stop-gap:
“[The Gastein Convention is] the gluing together of the cracks in the building.” (Blum 215) And this glue would not hold for
long.g The 2nd Schleswig War, even though it is relatively
short, has a major influence on European history. The war still plays an important role in Danish
cultural memory. Soon after the war, the Battle of Duebbel,
especially the doomed counterattack of the 8th Brigade, is elevated into a heroic moment
in the struggle against Prussian militarism. This conveniently shifts the narrative away
from political and military mistakes. The disaster of 1864 cannot be wished away,
and it marks the culmination of Denmark’s decline as a European power over the previous
two centuries in addition to the loss of its richest lands. Defeated on the battlefield, Denmark’s search
for national meaning turns to the pragmatic, cultural, and pastoral. For the member states of the German Confederation,
especially uncomfortable allies Prussia and Austria, 1864 is a step towards more conflict. Prussia is a rising power, and its role in
the war adds further tension to the question of whether Prussia might displace Austria
as the leading power in the Confederationg. Victory against Denmark also bolsters the
chances of Prussia leading the unification of Germany into a future empire. Just two years later, this is the motivation
for Prussia to once again initiate a war that will change the balance of power, and bring
an end to the German Confederation. We’d like to thank NordVPN for sponsoring
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Constitution.
