Bismarck's Rise: Schleswig Wars 1848-1864

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In the mid-19th century, the two small duchies of Schleswig and Holstein are at the centre of not one, but two wars that will change the map of Europe. The rising forces of revolution and nationalism help pit Denmark against the German Confederation in 1848 and again in 1864 - it’s the Schleswig Wars. In 1815, the Napoleonic Wars came to an end, and the Treaty of Vienna created a new peaceful order in Europe – a new order that meant to reverse the French revolution and re-establish a Europe of kings and princes. Denmark and Norway were separated in the peace, leaving a smaller Danish kingdom. The old Holy Roman Empire was gone, and to replace it, the Powers created a complex German Confederation made up of independent German-speaking states, the largest of which were Austria and Prussia. But not all the Confederation members were German – the King of Denmark was also the Duke of Confederation duchies Holstein and Lauenburg. The King of Denmark also happened to be the Duke of Schleswig, which was not part of the Confederation but had a mixed German and Danish-speaking population. These three duchies also provided about half of the Danish Crown’s economic output – a recipe for trouble in an age of rising nationalism in Denmark and the German lands, especially Prussia. Although the Great Powers had defeated France and tried to erase the impact of French revolution, its ideas of modern nationalism and republican democracy won’t go away. In 1848, revolutions sweep across much of Europe – first in France, then in Italy, Poland, Hungary, the German Confederation and Denmark. The revolutionaries are a diverse group: some were liberals who wished to remove the autocracy of princes, others came from social movements demanding better conditions for the poor, while nationalists wanted nation states defined by common language or culture. All of these ideals clashed with the traditional power of kings and princes. In March 1848 the revolution breaks out in the German lands and Denmark. In Berlin, Prussian King Friedrich Wilhelm IV’s troops open fire on protesters, killing 270, and Prussian troops also help other German states like Baden struggle against the uprisings. The Danish Unified Monarchy (a catchall name for the Kingdom of Denmark and the three independent duchies ruled separately by the Danish king) faces challenges from two directions. In Copenhagen, Danish nationalists want a more firmly defined Danish national state. They argue that Denmark ends at the Eider river, the border between the Danish-ruled independent Duchy of Schleswig and the Danish-ruled Duchy of Holstein, which is part of the German Confederation. The Eider Danes, as they call themselves, claim Schleswig is part of Denmark, while Holstein could remain separate. German nationalists in Schleswig and Holstein on the other hand take a different view. They insist that Schleswig-Holstein is a single entity that should entirely be within the German Confederation according to a 15th century document stating they were to be “undivided forever.” The intricacies of the problem are not lost on British Foreign Secretary Lord Palmerston: “The Schleswig-Holstein question is so complicated, only three men in Europe have ever understood it. One was Prince Albert, who is dead. The second was a German professor who became mad. I am the third and I have forgotten all about it.” (Allen 54) Danish and German nationalists each submit a list of their demands to King Frederick VII of Denmark. The Eider Danes want a new constitution for Denmark that would make Schleswig a part of the kingdom, and make sure the other two duchies would still be ruled by future Danish kings. The German nationalists in Schleswig and Holstein make a completely incompatible demand of their Duke. They want Schleswig to join Holstein as a single member of the German Confederation. The two groups also disagree about the desired line of succession for the future rulers of the duchies. In the end, the King adopts policies which suit the Eider Danes. In response, German nationalists in the two duchies announce a new provisional government separate from Denmark and in defiance of their Danish duke. As revolution grips Denmark and Germany, there are now two incompatible governments and national unification projects within the lands of the Danish King and both claim Schleswig. Conflict is not long in coming. On March 24th, 1848 a unit of German Schleswig-Holsteiners and students from Kiel under Prince Frederik of Noer occupy Rendsburg, a border fortress between the two duchies. In the standoff that follows, local soldiers now have a choice to make. They can march south to join the growing Schleswig-Holstein army, or north to the Danish army. For some the decision is easy and based on language, but for others, especially officers, it’s harder. They have to choose between their aristocratic loyalty, and their national identity – class or nation. In some cases, brothers, fathers and sons go different ways. Lieutenant Colonel MC von Holstein, for example, stayed loyal to the Danish crown, his son, First Lieutenant AC von Holstein, joined the rebels. Lace pedlar Jens Wulff describes the confusion: “[…] the whole world seems to be intoxicated, and this accursed partisanship dominates everywhere, alas making enemies of those who previously were friends. Woe to those who have brought this about. Germans and Danes lived so peacefully together in times past, but now within the same country the different nationalities face each other with enmity.” (Adriansen 13) On March 28, the Schleswig-Holsteiners request help from the German Confederation, especially from Prussia. The Danes also ask Prussia for help, but Berlin warns them not to move troops south. Prussian public opinion supports the rebels, and the royal government sees an opportunity to restore its prestige after struggles with the revolution. On April 4 Prussian and Confederation troops enter Holstein, and the First Schleswig War, known in Denmark as the Three Years’ War, begins. The armies fielded in 1848 number in the tens of thousands, far smaller than Napoleonic armies. The Danish army is joined by some volunteers from Sweden and Norway, while the local Schleswig-Holstein army fights alongside Prussians and Saxons from the Confederation. Some Prussian troops are armed with the new breach-loading Dreyse needle rifle, which has a much higher rate of fire than older muskets. The Prussians also have modern C/42 cannon – but tactics have yet to catch up to the new weapons, and commanders will have difficulty making the most of these early industrial armaments. Prussian Foreign Minister von Arnim thinks the whole affair will be over within days, but it isn’t so simple. After an initial Danish advance, the Prussian forces push the Danes back in a series of battles in April and May. The Danish navy ensures that the long coastline and capital of Copenhagen are safe, and now Russia puts pressure on Prussia not to go too far. The Danes gather their forces and launch a surprise attack at Dybbøl Banke on May 28, and the Prussians retreat. The two sides agree to a truce in August 1848, but fresh fighting breaks out again in April 1849. On April 13, Confederation troops retake Dybbøl, and a week later they capture Kolding. The Danish army manages to stop the Prussian advance and falls back to the newly-restored Fredericia Fortress. The Prussians besiege the fort, but then the fighting grinds to a halt. The Danish revolutionary pressures force King Frederick to make serious political concessions during the war, and Denmark becomes a constitutional monarchy in 1849. Meanwhile, revolution also continues in the German states, including Prussia and Austria’s Hungarian lands. A revolutionary National Assembly in Frankfurt dissolves the Confederation and proposes creating a single German Empire under the Prussian king, without Austria. But King Friedrich Wilhelm IV refuses to accept such an offer from mere commoners. Eventually, the German kings and princes are able to suppress the nationalist rebellions back home, which means that there is less popular support for the cause of Germans in Schleswig-Holstein. The Danes take advantage of the lull, and sally out from the fortress to break the siege. There follows another truce. Denmark and Prussia come under more and more international pressure to end the war, so the two states make a white peace in July 1850 - they agree to simply stop fighting each other. Schleswig remains under the Danish king, and the Germans of Schleswig-Holstein no longer have the support of the Confederation Army. Soon after, Denmark goes over to the offensive. The 37,000 Danes under General Gerhard Christoph von Krogh attack the isolated rebels, who have about 27,000 men under former Prussian General Wilhelm von Willisen. The Battle of Idstedt is marked by bad weather and much confusion, as the Danes advance on the Schleswig-Holstein defensive positions anchored on several small lakes. Danish soldier Johannes Helms recalls the fighting: “There was a rye field behind us, and we could constantly see the ears fly into the air as the bullets cut the straw. I doubt that anyone, no matter how hard they try, can keep from ducking their heads when they feel the whistle of a bullet, singing by his ear.” (Helms, p. 105/106) British journalist William Howard Russell recounts the moment the Danes make a general push towards mid-day on the 25th: “The Danes advanced again, and the battle raged with more fury than ever, the artillery in the plain on all points firing incessantly. The roar of the heavier cannon, and the rush and hiss of the balls through the air, were the only sounds that fell on the ear; the irregular firing of the riflemen and infantry was like the rattle of a toy compared to the clash of an enormous steam engine.” (Russell) Russell also remarks on local peasants being forced by soldiers to bring their carts up to the front to carry back wounded soldiers. The battle of Isted is one of the bloodiest battles in Danish history, with almost 7,000 killed or wounded on both sides. But although the Danes win the initiative, it’s still not a decisive victory. Instead, with the troops exhausted, national movements suppressed, and international pressure continuing, both sides agree to make peace. The First Schleswig War ends with a partial Danish victory, and the diplomats of Europe gathered in London to sort out the peace. In August 1850, France, England, Russia, Sweden, Denmark, Prussia and Austria meet in London to draw up a post-war treaty, which they revise in 1852. The result is the London Protocol, which keeps the pre-war status quo: Schleswig, Holstein and Lauenburg stay under the Danish crown and the latter two stay in the German Confederation. Russia also pressures Austria and Prussia into forcing the Schleswig-Holsteiners to give up the fight. The rebels reluctantly lay down their arms in January 1851 and dissolve their self-proclaimed government. As part of this delicate process, Austrian and Prussian administrators took on some oversight in the two confederation duchies, but not Schleswig. The peace also restores the Danish monarchy to its pre-war state. The national liberal government in Denmark is disbanded in favour of a conservative one, and a new constitution is adopted under which all three Danish duchies are considered equal and separate from each other and the Kingdom of Denmark. The Powers also solve the succession problem by installing their choice as heir to the Danish throne, Prince Christian of Glücksborg. The London Protocol is meant to return to the status quo before the war, but nationalist ideas are hard to suppress. Russia is the most autocratic of the Powers, so it doesn’t want to see nationalism gaining ground anywhere in case it spreads again – and it doesn’t want Denmark to be too strong in the Baltic region either. For Britain and France, limiting Prussian influence is the main achievement of the peace. In any case Prussia is also weakened in fall 1850 by its embarrassing failure to mobilize effectively against Austria in the Autumn Crisis, which allows Austria to re-establish the German Confederation under its dominance. But despite all the upheaval, the fundamental causes of the Schleswig war are still unresolved. By 1852, both Denmark and the German Confederation seem at first glance to have stopped the nationalist threat and re-established their traditional aristocratic power structures. But dreams of a German Empire remain, and this time they will come not from a grassroots national movement, but from the top down. Despite the suppression of the revolutionaries in Prussia, King Friedrich Wilhelm does have to make some compromises, including a new constitution which created an elected House of Representatives. Together with the House of Lords, these two bodies form the Prussian Parliament. In reality, the king still had overarching powers and the ability to dissolve the parliament at will, but the House of Representatives did have one important trump card - approval of the national budget. This causes a major headache for the soon-to-be Prussian King Wilhelm I in 1860. Wilhelm I was a staunch traditionalist, and held monarchical rank, etiquette and behaviour in extremely high regard. He is known to react emotionally and thoughtlessly when he feels his royal dignity had been disregarded and he especially does not like the House of Representatives control of his budget. In 1860, the House of Representatives rejects Wilhelm’s army reform bill, triggering a crisis. To break the deadlock, Wilhelm appoints Otto von Bismarck Prime Minister in 1862. Bismarck has a simple task: enforce the king’s will. But Bismarck and other Prussian conservatives have goals of their own. They want a new German Empire led by Prussia along conservative lines, not liberal democratic ones – though Bismarck’s later memoirs exaggerate his so-called plan for uniting Germany. Bismarck does hope that German unity will come not from below as the 1848 revolutionaries wanted, but from above – and through violence: “Germany does not look to Prussia's liberalism, but to its power. [...] It is not through speeches and majority decisions that the great questions of the time are decided [...] - but through iron and blood.” (Arand, 45) The Schleswig issue is a useful one for the opportunistic Bismarck and his fellow conservatives. Liberal nationalists are using the Schleswig question to gain electoral support, but if Bismarck could be seen to “resolve it” he might bolster the conservative hold on efforts at national unification and push the liberals aside. The political timing is just right for Prussian imperialists as well. From 1857, the national liberals of Denmark gain influence, and by 1860, they once again adopt the Eider Policy of linking Schleswig even closer to Denmark. Tensions come to a head in November 1863. New Danish King Christian IX signs the ‘November Constitution’ which enshrines many of the demands of the Eider Danes. As well as defining the Eider River as Denmark’s southern border – incorporating Schleswig into the Danish kingdom – it also introduces efforts to ‘danise’ the German-speakers of Schleswig. To the member states of the German Confederation, this is a breach of the London Protocol. The Confederation mobilizes a combined army according to a provision that allows it to punish members, like the King of Denmark, who violate their duties. Troops are rushed north along the new railway lines, and on December 23 1863, Prussian, Austrian, Saxon and Hanoverian troops marched into Holstein and Lauenburg without a fight. Denmark and the German Confederation are on the brink of war. As warclouds gather over Schleswig for a second time in a dozen years, the German Confederation issues Denmark an ultimatum to withdraw the November Constitution or face military action. Denmark refuses: the 2nd Schleswig War, also known as the First War of German Unification, or simply 1864, has begun. Prussian and Austrian troops enter Schleswig on February 1, 1864 – and their commanders want a quick victory before the other Great Powers can intervene. The Austro-Prussians field about 60,000 men, with reinforcements on the way, while the Danes have about 38,000 men. The Prussian artillery now also boasts some 4 and 6 pounder breech-loading steel cannon, partially thanks to the political connections of arms manufacturer Alfred Krupp. One Berlin newspaper is already calling him the Kanonenkönig, the Cannon King. But Prussian officers are still divided on how best to organize the artillery, and whether breech or muzzle loaders, or rifled or smoothbore guns are best. Prussian infantry still uses the quick-firing Dreyse rifle, superior to the Danish muzzle-loaders. Denmark’s initial strategy involves holding three flank positions at Ebeltoft in the north, Fredericia in the center and in the south. They want to defend Jutland along a north-south axis, with the goal of exhausting the enemy in fruitless north-south marches, before using Denmark’s superior navy to quickly land troops for counterattacks. But perceived political necessity trumps military wisdom. Danish politicians overrule their generals and insist on defending the Danevirke, an ancient defensive line. In early February, Prussian and Danish troops attempt to breach the line, but the Danes repel them at the Battle of Mysunde. The Danes expect the navy to protect the extreme flanks of the line, however the ice created by an exceptionally cold winter keeps the navy at a distance. The Prussians realize this and begin to cross the frozen marshland around the Schlei River, while Austrians breach the Danish line at Königshügel. Danish commander Christian Julius de Meza recognizes the threat and orders his troops back to Dybbøl on February 5. His decision likely saves a part of the army, but the Danish government is upset at the reverse – they sack de Meza and replace him with General Gerlach. Dybbøl - the site of major fighting in the first Schleswig War - once again becomes a bloody battlefield. The Prussians slowly surround the fortress and bombard it for two months, culminating in a barrage of 4700 shells on the final day. Many of the older fortifications are now rubble, and the Prussian troops attack on April 18, 1864. Gerlach asks Copenhagen for permission to withdraw, but the Danish Prime Minister and his defence minister refuse. They tell Gerlach to hold the line at any cost. The Prussians outnumber the Danes by roughly two to one, and within 30 minutes the Germans force the Danes out of their trenches and redoubts and towards the Dybbøl mill. But as the Prussians press the pursuit, the Danish 8th Brigade counterattacks supported by naval fire. Danish officer Adolph Wilhelm Dinesen recalls the impact: “The entire line charged forward, over stock and stone, through marshes and puddles, over fences and dykes, through iron and lead, only forward! Towards the enemy. … [We] charged the mill from all sides, shot and trampled everyone who resisted, and pursued the horrified enemies into the building itself. There was not enough space to aim or use the bayonet here; you dropped the rifles, drew the sabres, and fought with fists… Smoke and blood, the noise of weapons and screams filled the yard.” (Lund 253) The counter-attack gives fleeing Danish units time to cross over the pontoon bridges to Sønderborg. But then another Prussian charge pushes the 8th Brigade back with heavy casualties. Dinesen survives: “The Prussian charge is overwhelming. Complete destruction… When the mill falls, we are just outside, locked in a firefight with the enemy. We know we will not be able to hold out much longer… and we are beginning to receive enfilade fire… We soon understand that the Battle of Dybbøl has come to an end.” (Buk-Swienty, 287/288) Around 2000 Danish soldiers are killed or wounded at Duebbel - approximately 10% of the entire Danish army at the time. It is the turning point in the war. Bismarck offers to negotiate, so both sides declare a truce in July and meet in London. Bismarck offers Denmark the northern, predominantly Danish part of Schleswig, in exchange for the south. But the Danish government refuses and maintains its policy of Denmark to the Eider river. King Christian suggests that Denmark join the German Confederation in its entirety, but Bismarck turns him down. The Prussian Chancellor has no interest in incorporating a large, potentially troublesome minority into a future German empire. And so, the short-lived truce after the Prussian victory at Dybbøl, expires and the fighting resumes. The Austro-Prussians agree on a new plan: to occupy Jutland and completely remove the disputed duchies from Danish control. On June 29, Prussian forces cross onto the island of Als where the remnants of the Danish army are sheltering. Under heavy supporting fire, the Prussian take the Danish trenches in a night attack, and after a series of short, sharp skirmishes, the Danes surrender. The Battle of Als is the last significant battle of the war. Soon afterwards the Austro-Prussians occupy all of Jutland, which forces the Danes back to the negotiating table. All told, bout 10,000 men have been killed or wounded. This time, Austro-Prussian demands are not about compromise. They demand the separation of Schleswig, Holstein, and Lauenburg from the Danish crown - and King Christian has no choice but to accept. Denmark loses the Second Schleswig War for several reasons. Firstly, a sense of superiority resulting from their victory in the first war led to overconfidence, especially amongst the political class. These politicians often overruled the advice of commanders on the ground, which hurt the army’s performance. Secondly, the Danes hoped if they could hold on long enough, the great powers would once again intervene to their benefit, just as Britain and Russia had done in 1850. But by 1864, the European geopolitical situation has changed. For one, the Britain is closer to Prussia after the marriage of Queen Victoria’s daughter to Crown Prince Frederick Wilhelm of Prussia in 1858. For another, Russia is less influential. Its humiliating defeat in the Crimean War in the 1850s had reduced its prestige and in any case, it owed Prussia for helping put down a Polish rebellion in 1863. In the end, the three duchies would be jointly administered by Austria and Prussia under the ‘Gastein Convention’. Prussia oversees Schleswig and Austria Holstein, although Kiel - located in Holstein - becomes a federal port under Prussian control. Prussia then buys Lauenburg from the Austrians for 2.5 million Danish Reichsthaler, whereupon Bismarck himself becomes duke. The Gastein Convention though is a fragile arrangement. Prussia and Austria have completely different ideas for their new duchies. Prussia wants to annex them, while Austria wants them to remain independent. Bismarck sees the convention as a stop-gap: “[The Gastein Convention is] the gluing together of the cracks in the building.” (Blum 215) And this glue would not hold for long.g The 2nd Schleswig War, even though it is relatively short, has a major influence on European history. The war still plays an important role in Danish cultural memory. Soon after the war, the Battle of Duebbel, especially the doomed counterattack of the 8th Brigade, is elevated into a heroic moment in the struggle against Prussian militarism. This conveniently shifts the narrative away from political and military mistakes. The disaster of 1864 cannot be wished away, and it marks the culmination of Denmark’s decline as a European power over the previous two centuries in addition to the loss of its richest lands. Defeated on the battlefield, Denmark’s search for national meaning turns to the pragmatic, cultural, and pastoral. For the member states of the German Confederation, especially uncomfortable allies Prussia and Austria, 1864 is a step towards more conflict. Prussia is a rising power, and its role in the war adds further tension to the question of whether Prussia might displace Austria as the leading power in the Confederationg. Victory against Denmark also bolsters the chances of Prussia leading the unification of Germany into a future empire. Just two years later, this is the motivation for Prussia to once again initiate a war that will change the balance of power, and bring an end to the German Confederation. We’d like to thank NordVPN for sponsoring this video. NordVPN is one of the leading VPN services out there and they make my internet life a lot easier. My work for Real Time History means I travel one week of every month from Austria to Germany, the night train can pass through three different countries on that journey and during that trip I just want to watch a movie in peace and quiet without the streaming services geoblocking me. If you find yourself in a situation like me, NordVPN lets you set your location and you can stream away. When I‘m on the road, my email and other business logins often to freak out because they think someone is trying to steal my account. With NordVPN that kind of problem is a thing of the past. And on top of they offer a whole suit of other useful security features that make your online life easier and safer across all devices. If you go to https://nordvpn.com/realtimehistory, you can get a 2-year plan plus 4 additional months with a HUGE discount. It’s risk-free with Nord’s 30-day money-back guarantee and it support our channel. That’s https://nordvpn.com/realtimehistory. We’d like to thank Mark Newton and Nicolai Eberholst for their help with this episode. If you want to see our sources, you can find them in the video description as usual. I’m Jesse Alexander and this is Real Time History, the only history channel that knows nothing lasts forever, in the cold November Constitution.
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Channel: Real Time History
Views: 702,455
Rating: undefined out of 5
Keywords: Bavaria, Saxony, Würtemberg, Hannover, Prussia, Denmark, Bismarck, German Wars of Unification, First Schleswig War, Second Schleswig War, 1848, 1864, Austria, Dybbol, Germany, German Empire
Id: edVfP9XeOaI
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Length: 28min 21sec (1701 seconds)
Published: Fri Aug 26 2022
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