The Universe: Unknown Cosmic Phenomena (S3, E12) | Full Episode | History

solar wind cosmic rays   and uv radiation they're forces from outer  space that affect our lives every day and most of us don't even know it from skin cancer to lost transmissions  these cosmic phenomena can cause us harm   yet they can also dazzle us with the beauty of  an aurora and the brilliance of a shooting star   get ready for the wonders and  the dangers of cosmic phenomena it's just magnificent it's full of dynamic  motion it is changing every time you look at it   it's the biggest thing you've ever seen  it's just a beautiful sight kind of   completely unlike anything we know it's it's so  weird to see the sky behaving in such a fashion   you see these flittering lights in the sky they're  changing with time in beautiful and wondrous ways   it's really an out of this world experience once  in everyone's lifetime they should see one of the   most spectacular psychedelic light shows that  nature gives us and that's the aurora borealis   it was named after aurora the roman goddess of  dawn and the greek god of the north wind boreas in the southern hemisphere it's  known as the aurora australis way before they dazzled astronomers auroras amazed  the first people who saw them in the polar regions   to ancient scandinavians only an equally amazing  explanation for the dazzling displays would do   they believed a giant fox in the sky swooshing  its tail caused the northern lights to appear   i like that explanation because  it is not that far from the truth   the aurora is an electric phenomena  and when a fox swishes its tail round   you deal with static electricity and you may  actually make sparks and an aurora-like phenomenon   if you want to know how an aurora comes  about you have to start at the sun the sun it's not only our source of light but  also energy lots of it the sun emits a steady   stream of charged particles known as solar wind  a cosmic force sometimes intensified by a coronal   mass ejection solar wind can cause some glow in  the upper atmosphere nearly any time of the year   but occasionally the sun has these tremendous  outbursts they're called solar flares or coronal   mass ejections and then a whole stream of charged  particles comes to the earth at about the same   time a whole bundle a whole bunch of them and  that then causes a lot brighter auroral phenomena traveling at speeds of up to 750 miles per second   it takes solar wind about two days  to reach the earth's magnetic field   as the energized particles stream along the  magnetic field towards the poles they excite   gases in the earth's upper atmosphere and produce  the colored lights that make up the aurora when the energetic particles hit the upper  atmosphere they first encounter atomic oxygen   which gives us the red line emission and the  green line emission the most prevalent emission   in aurora further down you can encounter  molecular nitrogen and that gives us   if the aurora is very intense at the bottom  edge of the green curtain a purple lower border charged particles interacting with excitable gases  to produce bright colors the aurora functions much   like a neon sign neon works by you take a little  bit of a rare gas and put it in a tube at a very   low pressure and then you apply anywhere  from three or four thousand volts to maybe   15 000 volts will ionize the gas and excite  it into giving off its characteristic color   the guesses that are available for all  neon signs are xenon which is a real pale   blue helium which is a kind of a peach color  krypton which is a silver color it's not a planet   and argon which is a lavender and neon which  is the brightest especially on a rainy night aurora's two are best viewed at night  especially during winter in polar regions   when the nights are as long as they are dark   depending on the amount of solar activity auroras  can last from a few minutes to several days and be seen not only near the poles but  also on rare occasions at lower latitudes   just a few years ago in 2003 we had what we call  a century storm the biggest magnetic storm in 100   years it was a big aurora associated with that  people in washington dc could see the aurora in   the mediterranean everywhere you don't see aurora  very often and one of the biggest that we know of   was in the middle of the 19th century that  caused aurora that was seen from hawaii and   other places in the south pacific and it is  the biggest aurora on record that we know of auroras can even be seen beyond earth the solar wind goes out in all directions reaching  further than the planets jupiter and saturn have   huge magnetic fields bigger than our own which  make for especially large and intense auroras   but regardless of where they're seen how long  their duration or intense their display auroras   usually appear as glowing curtains with folds  or striations that change constantly time lapse   photography speeds up the effect these signature  features add to the aurora's beauty and mystery the shape of the curtains of the aurora  and the motion within these shapes   these rays and curls and wiggles  and spirals and all of that is a   subject of active research we don't  really understand all of that yet   adding to its mystery are reports that the  aurora can not only be seen but also heard the aurora is at hundred or 60 mile altitude and  the sound would take several minutes to come to   us before we can hear it and yet people report  that they hear the sound simultaneously when   they see the aura so there must be some unknown  mechanism that makes people think they're here or   makes them hear something that may be associated  with aurora nobody has an explanation for that and   some people are trying to find out what it is  auroras by themselves pose no threat to humans but the increased solar activity associated with  them can generate about 1 million megawatts of   electricity and cause us problems in other  ways such as disruptions with power lines   it's not the aurora itself that's causing  the problem with the power lines it's the   charged particles that have come in from  the sun and they cause the damage and the   interference to the power lines that's an  important distinction to make with that   increased activity and movement of electrically  charged particles that give rise to a rory   they also interact with anything else that has  an electric or magnetic field associated with it   so those charged particles are disrupting  whether it's power lines or electronics and   satellites or cell phone coverage anything where  you need electric and magnetic fields to run your   apparatus will get disrupted at the  same time that aurora are taking place so the static on your radio the blip on  your tv screen that dropped cell phone call or even a blackout like the one  that hit quebec canada in 1989   could just be blunt reminders of the  earth's humble place in the solar system   the earth is just a planet going around  the sun and the sun has an atmosphere   that extends well beyond the earth so the earth is  actually living in the outer atmosphere of the sun   what the sun does when it varies  the outer atmosphere it affects   the earth so it affects the systems the  technological systems that we depend on though auroras are a mere side effect  of the sun's interaction with the earth   they can enlighten us about the cosmos the aurora is a good indicator of how the upper  atmosphere and the magnetic field of the earth   interact with the solar wind and which eventually  comes from the sun so we can use the aurora as a   study object essentially that nature  provides for us to understand better   what goes on in the rest of the universe the auroras are one of the measures of solar  activity so in tracing history back from the   present day back to the 10th century or the  8th century or even before the auroras are one   thing that you can use as a measure of solar  activity so the sun has a 22 year cycle of   activity every 11 years it becomes more active  and then it reverses its polarity and comes back   but you can trace this back in time and the  auroras are one of the best markers of that while auroras are most often  viewed in the polar regions   there are other dazzling cosmic phenomena that  can be seen anywhere they're called shooting stars   when we see shooting stars they look like stars  that fell onto the planet earth but that can't be   right stars are much bigger than the planet  earth if you really had a shooting star it   would gobble up the earth within a fraction of  a second so if it's not a star then what is it   it's just a little tiny pebble like a grain  of sand from outer space zipping through our   atmosphere and colliding with the molecules and  atoms in the atmosphere and causing them to glow   so it's not a star at all nothing even remotely  similar to a star these glowing pebbles   are better known as meteors most burn up  in the atmosphere some if they're large   enough can make it all the way through  the atmosphere and drop to the earth and we find a rock called a meteorite  and that is really the same phenomenon the pebbles and dust particles that make  up meteors are leftovers from the formation   of our solar system mostly scattered  debris from previous generations of stars   many of them also come from the asteroid belt between mars and jupiter there's a  whole bunch of rocks floating around   and occasionally they hit each other  and shatter and these little grains go   flying around in the solar system and some of  them eventually intersect earth's atmosphere at certain times of the year a large  number of meteors streak across the sky   these events are called meteor showers they occur  when the earth passes through a trail of debris   bits of ice and grit left by  a comet as it orbits the sun   when you look at a meteor shower the meteors or  shooting stars appear to emanate from a single   point in the sky the radiant they radiate away  from there but really the little bits of ice and   rock that make up the meteors are traveling in a  bundle along essentially parallel paths through   space they're not diverging from a single  point they only appear to be spreading apart   because of the perspective the fact that you're  looking at them from a great distance and they   seem to come from a vanishing point you can  see the exact same thing in this hallway   the walls are parallel to one another the ceiling  is parallel to the floor the lines of intersection   between the floor and the wall and the ceiling  and the wall are parallel to one another   but they all appear appear to converge far down  the hallway there they come from a vanishing point   because of the perspective and if you go back to  the meteors in a similar way the particles are   all traveling parallel to one another but only  appear to diverge from the radiant because of perspective meteor showers are named after the  constellations from where they appear to emanate   even though they have nothing to do with  the stars in the constellation the leonid   meteor showers named after the constellation  leo are some of the most brilliant on record the one in 1833 by some accounts had  as many as 200 000 meteors per hour   some observers thought the  world was coming to an end but in some ways it was just the  beginning in recent years new cosmic   phenomena have been discovered that are  even more dazzling than meteor showers   they emit brilliant colors at lightning quick  speed blink and you'll miss them but we got him cosmic rays sound like something from a sci-fi  movie an invisible force from outer space that can   cause changes in weather and much more but cosmic  rays are real even if the term is a misnomer cosmic rays are are particles they're not  rays they originally thought that maybe   they were a light phenomenon but they're  not they're particles they're made of   the same elements that the sun and earth  and everything in the universe is made of   cosmic rays are any radiation  that comes from outer space   so there's lots of different sources the main  ones are the sun because it accelerates a lot of   energetic particles and the other one is stars and  galaxies black holes neutron stars everything else most cosmic rays are not super energetic by  earth's standards but the most energetic ones   would be the equivalent of like a a  well-hit tennis ball hitting you in the head   that would not feel good but many  of them are like a little pee from   a peashooter impinging upon you  or even less energy than that   the earth's atmosphere protects us from most  cosmic rays but those high energy particles that   do manage to penetrate the atmosphere are potent  enough to make an impact on all living organisms it can cause mutations in the dna in fact that's  one of the canonical explanations for why there's   a genetic drift among species because cosmic rays  cause the dna to change a little bit and that   leads to variations in speeches of animals some of  these mutations influence evolution for the better what is evolution it's based on the idea that  your genes can change ever so slightly from   generation to generation making you more  adapted to changes on the planet earth   since there are cosmic radiations raining down  us even as we speak it means that our genes are   being altered every day by impacts from subatomic  particles meaning that we can adapt to changing   conditions because cosmic rays give us a cosmic  roll of the dice which changes our genetic makeup cosmic rays can also cause bad  mutations that can lead to cancer the good news is that even though there are  thousands of cosmic rays passing through our   bodies every second they're so tiny that the  likelihood that they'll hit right on a spot   of dna that disrupts that nucleus and makes  that cell cancerous is very very very small   but if you're an environment like the astronauts  face where you have a lot of radiation very little   shielding then you can start to accumulate  some risk of being hurt by the radiation passengers on transpolar flights also may be  at risk of increased radiation exposure from   cosmic rays in fact some of the crew members on  transatlantic transpolar flights will actually   wear little radiation badges and they actually  discourage pregnant women from being stewardesses   or pilots on those particular flights because  they're worried about it and they haven't   demonstrated that it's actually an effect but  they are very careful about those radiation levels cosmic rays not only make an impact on all living  organisms they also may influence the weather there are some theories that galactic cosmic rays  may be part of the initiation of thunderstorms   actual lightning strikes because they can  cause an ionization path through the atmosphere   that might just open up the path that's  needed for the lightning bolt to start we've all seen lightning during a thunderstorm  but as scary and spectacular as these deadly   bolts can be they're literally on the low end  of related phenomena known as transient luminous   events that take place in the upper atmosphere  thanks to advances in high-speed video cameras   we've been able to verify their existence one  of them is called a sprite this jellyfish-shaped   flash of light appears about 45 miles above the  earth's surface and lasts only a few milliseconds sprites are an interesting  electrical discharge that can go   up to something like 55 or  even 60 miles in some cases   but it can also go down to an altitude of  maybe 30 miles above the earth's surface   so you have these two streams of of electricity  going both up and down and it sometimes has a   reddish orange hue that's caused by excitation  of neutral nitrogen molecules in the atmosphere   another recently discovered phenomenon is elves  no they're not imaginary figures of folklore   rather it's an acronym for a very long  explanation of the process that generates   these glowing bursts of energy around  250 miles in diameter ready elves stands   for emissions of light and very low frequency  perturbations from electromagnetic pulse sources elves are actually kind of a relative of sprites  the one difference between elves and sprites   is that elves will actually last for even a  shorter amount of time so the only way to see   an elve is to have a very sophisticated camera  and we'd have to probably catch it by accident   the elves are not visible by the naked eye  because it's such a short burst of energy closer to earth other distinctive  discharges occur known as blue jets   blue jets start from just above the tops of  the thunder clouds at an altitude about 10   miles above earth's surface and they go upwards  to an altitude about 30 miles above the earth's   surface and usually it's sort of a blue cone-like  jet of light and the blue color comes from neutral   and ionized nitrogen molecules that have been  excited by this electrical current coming through as relatively newly discovered phenomena blue  jets elves and sprites aren't fully understood   the impact they have on the earth's atmosphere  continues to be a source of ongoing speculation   there are some theories that would  actually serve to balance out the   electromagnetic forces of the earth that the  elves may be associated with producing more   ozone one very simple way to look at it is  that nature is constantly trying to balance   itself out and because of that there  are eventual benefits to life on earth cosmic phenomena not only affect the  weather but also plants and animals   without their interactions with the sun  our lives would be thrown into chaos the sun acts like a cosmic alarm clock  regulating our lives we measure our days   in sunrises and sunsets the same with plants the  most delicate flower to the tallest tree relies   on this cosmic force to tell it what to do one  great example of that is flowering some plants   are short day some plants are long day the long  day plants can sense the lengthening of the sun   of the day that happens in spring the short day  plants feel the shortening of the sun towards the   winter so chrysanthemums for example are short  day plants they flower in the fall petunias or   marigolds those are long day plants they flower  when daylight is getting longer this is all due   to mechanisms and chemical compounds in the plant  that can detect the time that the sun is out there   telling plants when to flower is just one  way the sun plays a key role in their lives   another way is the role the sun plays in  initiating a process called photosynthesis   without this cosmic interaction  plants would die and so would we photosynthesis is just like solar cells   basically the plant takes sun energy and turns  it into a form of energy it can use to grow chlorophyll the green pigment in leaves allows  plants to absorb sunlight and begin photosynthesis   chlorophyll is a huge molecule of magnesium  surrounded by smaller molecules of carbon and   they all kind of support it what this  molecule does is it takes light energy   and absorbs it for things the plant can use photosynthesis triggers a complex process that  causes plants to combine carbon dioxide and water   to make sugar which in turn is used to make  starch fats and proteins the food we eat   at the same time plants release oxygen for us to  breathe if photosynthesis were to quit working   we'd all be dead that's the bottom line that includes animals like us they rely  on the sun to provide sustenance regulate   their lives and just maybe how to  navigate their way in the world navigation is very widespread in the animal  kingdom salmon find their way back to the   gravel bed where they were hatched there are big  migrations of caribou there are huge migrations   of grazing animals in africa there are insects  that migrate the monarch butterfly for example   is a spectacular case where the adults that are  born here in ithaca go and spend the winter down   in mexico and then come back i mean there are  many many examples of this and not for a single   one of them do we really understand fully the  cues that they are using on these long journeys studies offer some clues to the  mystery of how animals navigate   many species use the sun to determine direction  that's not so easy if you think about it because   in order to use the sun that way you have  to have a clock that is you need to know   whether it's the morning the noon or afternoon  because of the apparent movement of the sun   and so animals do in fact have a biological clock  as do we which gives them the right time of day   if conditions obscure the sun some animals  switch to the earth's magnetic field   a force that originates deep in the planet's  molten core it provides not only directional   pointers but also positioning cues every place on  earth has a unique magnetic signature if an animal   is sufficiently sensitive it may be  able to use the earth's magnetic field   to figure out where it is in relation to home  by monitoring the differences in magnetic fields the problem with using the earth's  magnetic field to locate your position   is that the earth's magnetic field  changes it changes from night to day   it changes because of deposits of iron under the  surface of the earth called magnetic anomalies   which distort it and it also varies because  of sunspots which cause variation in the field   and all of these things means  that it's relatively noisy   and yet it seems many animals are able to make use  of it to find their way a training toss of homing   pigeons shows how animals may use the sun and  the earth's magnetic field to find their way home homie pigeons have been domesticated for  years for this ability to find their way home   they have been raised for generations  to be the athletes of the pigeon world   so they fly very long distances the first  step in a pigeon release is you go out to your   loft and you select the pigeons that you're  going to use for the training toss that day   and what i look for is i want to make sure  all the pigeons are in good physical condition   their feathers are all in perfect condition and  they look like they want to fly and i'll select   those pigeons and i'll put them in what is called  a pigeon basket which is basically a small box   that is used to transport the pigeons from  their home loft over to the release point   the next step in the pigeon toss is the actual  release where we come out into a field where   there are no trees around and it's an open  area and we open the box and let the pigeons go once in flight the pigeons experts think  first use the sun to orient themselves then   navigate their way home probably by using their  sense of smell and the earth's magnetic field   there are two sense organs that seem to be  involved in detecting the earth's magnetic   field one is in the visual system in the eye and  the retina of the eye and the other is in the   pigeon's upper beak the mandible of the beak  where there are a whole bunch of deposits of   magnetite which is a magnetic mineral and  that also seems to be involved in detecting   the magnetic field so there are two sense  organs and we still don't really understand   exactly how these interact and how they're  used by animals to find their way around the last part of a pigeon toss is the return   where the pigeons fly back to their loft and  land on the platform and then go back inside a simple pigeon toss may show but doesn't fully  explain how animals use the cosmos to navigate   it's a confounding mystery that  may never be completely solved it's made very difficult by the fact that  animals use several different techniques   and so when you do the usual classical thing  of making it hard for them to use the sun   the stinkers switch and use the earth's  magnetic field and it's this whole business   of having a number of different tools in their  armory just as we do in finding our way around   that makes it so very difficult experimentally  to unravel exactly what is going on like the   magnetic field there's another cosmic force  that affects life on earth in mysterious ways   it hides in broad daylight but there's no hiding  from it ignore it and you'll get burned or worse a cosmic phenomenon gives us that golden tan we  crave and that seemingly healthy look but that   look only goes skin deep a tan is the most common  effect from a potentially deadly solar source   uv or ultraviolet rays ultraviolet is that part  of the spectrum that we can't see with their eyes   but there's a fair amount of it out there and the  sun is putting it out all the time now just like   there are colors in the visible spectrum there  are colors of ultraviolet depending on what the   wavelength is and we've divided them into three  different bands ultraviolet a b and c for example   ultraviolet c is blocked almost completely by the  ozone layer ultraviolet b gets through a little   bit more and ultraviolet a gets through the most  because it's the closest to being visible light   uva is considered the aging and skin cancer  ray and uvb is considered the burning ray so   the uvb rays cause sunburns and the uva  rays cause the freckles and the sun spots this is a model of a cross section of skin when  you're outside the uvb light will go superficial   into the skin and cause  sunburn so that will damage   these cells that make up our skin keratinocytes  when the cells are damaged the body responds   by activating the immune system and that will  increase the blood flow to the area of injury   and then it will activate the immune cells to  produce small molecules that causes inflammation   and that's just the beginning prolonged exposure  to uvb rays from the sun can cause cataracts   and it can also be a factor in skin cancers  such as melanoma a potentially fatal disease   the people at most risk of developing skin  cancers from sun exposure are the lightest skin   people the people with the lightest  eyes the people who live in the sun   the people who never wear sunscreen  those are the most at risk there is however a bright side to uvb exposure  and that's the production of vitamin d in the skin   we can produce vitamin d with an innate  molecule that's actually in the skin   plus uv radiation which converts this molecule  into vitamin d which we need for healthy bones   healthy calcium metabolism however we can  also get that vitamin d from fortified foods   and from supplements so we don't  absolutely have to get it from uv radiation while uvb interacts with the surface layer of skin   uv-a penetrates deeper adding  a new wrinkle to sun exposure uv-a exposure that goes deep into the  lower layer of the skin will lead to   photo aging and will break the collagen by  increasing enzymes that break up the collagen   and the elastic fibers that's in the dermis that  gives us the youthful and tight and healthy skin   tanning booths try to recreate the sun's  rays artificially but exposure to man-made   sun in a booth is worse than lying under  the real thing 93 million miles away the tanning booth industry will make you think  that tanning booths are safer and the tan you get   from laying in them is a safer more gradual tan  but the opposite is true in fact tanning boots   are even more harmful to the skin the reason is  because the bulbs are over 90 uva rays and those a   rays are the aging and skin cancer rays so people  will develop skin cancers 20 and 30 years later   it's a known fact that going to the tanning  salon increases your risk of skin cancer many people also think that regular  sunscreen will protect them from   skin cancer and premature aging not  true not even sunscreens with a high   spf number will prevent these  harmful effects from the sun spf is sun protection factor and  it measures how much time you can   be out in the sun without getting burned so spf  factor only measures the uvb protection not uva the most effective sunscreens  provide protection against both uvb   and uva but even with frequent re-applications  sunscreens are no guarantee against skin cancer   which may be increasing due to  the depletion of the ozone layer what ozone does is it forms sort of a blanket over  us that absorbs a lot of the incoming radiation so   what happens if you lose your ozone you get more  and more of this higher energy radiation the uvb   and that's the stuff that's bad  for causing damage to your skin it's interesting to note that two billion years  ago before the earth had an oxygen-rich atmosphere   it had no ozone layer and life did not exist  on the surface of the earth it could only exist   under the ocean layers where it's  protected from ultraviolet light by the water while ultraviolet light is  invisible and its effects may harm us   the sun's visible light is the source of what  may be the most beautiful cosmic effect of all the sun plays a key role in causing one  of the most spectacular light shows of all rainbows rainbows form when sunlight  which we call white light passes through   spherical droplets rain is  generally spherical droplets   and the light gets dispersed or spread out  into a rainbow of colors because the light   bends by different amounts as it goes through  the droplet depending on its color or wavelength the red is one extreme long wavelength the blue  is another extreme which is a short wavelength   of course there are other colors  there's other wavelengths in between   that are refracted at different angles so that's  why you get that spectrum of light because the   change in wavelengths is continuous  as you go from short up the long wave very good analogy to a rainbow  can be created with a prism   the sun for the light source but instead of  a raindrop you know have a prism different   wavelengths are refracted at different angles  they're refracted twice once out of each side   and then you have a rainbow that is produced from  the separation of red all the way through blue different wavelengths of light refracted  or bent at different angles explains why   the colors of the rainbow appear in the order  they do and in that arc-like shape there's a   certain set of angle where a preponderance of  the light is bent and so it collects up there   there's a certain angle where they're more rays  than at other angles because depending on the   angle of incidence of the sunlight more rays  tend to bunch up in this particular direction that angle is 42 degrees from the anti-solar  point a fancy astronomical term for the shadow   of your head at that angle the incoming light  is at its most intense and where the rainbow   appears but 42 degrees from the shadow of  your head is different than 42 degrees from   the shadow of someone else's head this means  no two people see the exact same rainbow sometimes if you're really lucky or at least   standing at the right angle  you'll see a secondary rainbow what happens inside the raindrop where  you have this diffraction sometimes it   bounces more than once and so when it bounces  a second time it comes out at a different angle   it's a larger angle 51 degrees to be exact  and it'll be dimmer because most of the   light escapes after the first bounce but  some of it goes in the second bounce now   the interesting thing about the second  rainbow is it's in the opposite order   so the red that's on one side and one rainbow  will be on the opposite side in the other whether in single or double form a rainbow  doesn't appear at a fixed point in the sky its apparent existence depends solely on the  observer's location and the position of the sun in this light a rainbow may be  viewed as an optical illusion   in some ways a rainbow is an illusion you can't  walk to a rainbow and touch it or pick it up   it always maintains its distance away from you  because the rainbow really just is a set of   light rays coming toward your eye from a set  of angles and as long as there are droplets   in those directions you will see a rainbow  but if you go to where the droplets are you've   changed the angle and the rainbow disappears so  really in that sense a rainbow is an illusion the rainbow simple beauty and complex  science have imbued it with legend the   ancient greeks considered it a path  between their gods and the earth the irish leprechaun's hiding place for his pot of   gold is said to be at the end of a  rainbow a place impossible to reach   and the hindus believed it was the bow  belonging to their god of lightning and thunder the beauty of a rainbow the complexity  of photosynthesis the impact of uv rays the mystique of an aurora these diverse cosmic phenomena all shed light on  our relationship with the universe we are anything   but passive bystanders in this whole pageant of  phenomena that we see between earth and space   life on earth evolved in this environment of  cosmic rays and aurorae and lightning and all   of the kinds of phenomena that we see is is just  part of the environment in which we've evolved   and so it is part of us and we are part of it   the beautiful atmospheric phenomena that we  see rainbows and auroras and meteors flying by as well as the potentially harmful  things like uv radiation from the sun   show us the earth is not just some isolated  sphere detached from the rest of the universe no   we're part of it and that makes  the earth all the more beautiful you

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Id: KmTzJX48_cM

Length: 44min 27sec (2667 seconds)

Published: Mon Dec 28 2020