The Foundations of Classical Architecture: Roman Classicism

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I'm Calder Loth, architectural historian and I'm pleased to welcome you to part one of our four-part educational video series on classical architecture. We begin this series with Roman classicism, the foundation of the architecture of Western civilization and an important part of our country's architectural heritage and image. Many of America's great public buildings such as our nation's Capitol are expressed in this language, also so are many institutional buildings such as The Metropolitan Museum and many of our older residential neighborhoods such as Monument Avenue in my hometown of Richmond, Virginia. Classical architecture is all around us. We live in a time when educated people are taught very little about architecture. Most can't really see or appreciate a magnificent classical work such as the Library of Congress. So I hope that at the end of this series you will have a more informed eye and will be able to read a classical building such as the Library of Congress, just like a book. With classical architecture, we learned from the buildings of the past. They are our design resources. Design connoisseurship is thus essential in determining what is worthy of emulation or what may not be. A masterpiece such as Palladio's Palazzo Chiericati has much to tell us. Aspiring practitioners of classical architecture, thus have to be familiar with the languages, vocabulary and grammar in order to apply it effectively in one's own works. So where does this language come from? Well, from the ancient world, of course. We're seeing an image of the Roman forum as it might've looked originally. This ancient monumental architecture has inspired works great and small from the Renaissance to the present. However, with the fall of Rome, the rules for classical design were forgotten. Buildings still got built and many of them were built with architectural fragments quarried from ancient structures. This early medieval arcade is made of salvaged ancient columns and capitals with no attempt to match them correctly with no understanding of classical design principles. This arcade is architecturally illiterate. Regrettably, such illiteracy persists today. This church has classical columns and moldings, but it's builders are playing the game without knowing the rules. It just doesn't look right. The Institute of Classical Architecture and Art advocates for and teaches the use of the classical language. To do that, we have to understand the language's basic elements. The relearning of ancient Roman culture occurred in the Renaissance. It began with the study of Roman literature, philosophy, history, and sculpture. The Renaissance also kindled interest in ancient ruins, but Renaissance architects were at a loss on how to design new buildings using or reusing the classical language. That is until an important discovery. The discovery was an ancient Roman treatise on architecture by an architect named Vitruvius Pollio who lived during the time of Caesar Augustus. Vitruvius's texts survived as a medieval copy with no illustrations. It was discovered in 1414 by Vatican archivist in a monastery in Switzerland. The treatise, titled "The Ten Books on Architecture" covered a number of subjects, materials, construction, hydraulics and acoustics among others, but most importantly, it contained an explanation of the fundamentals of classical design. These included detailed explanations of the elements and proportional systems of the orders of architecture, the different types of columns. Vistruvius's treatise was transcribed and published in 1486 first in Latin and later in Italian. It quickly became the ultimate authority for classical design, a veritable how to book. For example, let's look at just a small portion of Vitruvius's explanation of how to execute the Corinthian capital , "different portions of this capital should be fixed as follows that the height of the capital, including its abacus be equivalent to the thickness of the base of the column. Let the breadth of the Abacus be proportion so that diagonals drawn from one corner of it to the other shall be twice the height of the capitals, which will give the proper breadth to each face of the Abacus" and so on for a page or two more. Such lengthy detailed instructions at last gave the Renaissance architects the key to classical design. Nearly all subsequent architectural treatises used Vitruvius as their authority. Scores of additions of Vitruvius's treatise in many languages have since been published. Most of them have included illustrations based on Vitruvius's written descriptions. Inexpensive reprints of Vitruvius are easily available today. Vitruvius makes many important observations. I will mention three. First he talks about harmonic proportions, the idea that beauty derives from a harmony of parts. This is an illustration from a 17th century edition of Vitruvius's, treatise by French architect Claude Perrault, who supplied illustrations for his edition. Vitruvius states that a well proportioned human standing straight with arms stretched perpendicular to his torso, describes a perfect square and with arms stretch diagonally upward and legs apart, he describes a perfect circle using the navel as center point. You may be more familiar with Leonardo da Vinci's depiction of the Vitruvian man. Vitruvius makes other observations about human proportions such as the length of a man's forearm is the same as the width of his chest and there's also equal to one fourth of his height and so on. These proportional relationships are analogous to the proportional systems of classical architecture, which Vitruvius discusses at length. Vitruvius also discusses how you can give a specific character to a temple by the spacing of its columns. Columns closely spaced, make a temple appear uninviting. Wider space columns are more inviting. This illustration is from that same French edition of Vitruvius's treatise. However, Vitruvius maintains that the most visually satisfying spacing is what he called eustyle. Eu means good, as in euphoric, feeling good. Style is another word for a column as in stylus, a cylindrical object. For Vitruvius, eustyle meant that the center bay of a temple portico should be slightly wider than the base on either side, giving emphasis to the entrance. If you look closely at this illustration, you can see that this center Bay is slightly wider. This principle was followed in many ancient temples such as the Pantheon. Look carefully and you can see that the Pantheon's center bay is slightly wider. Andrea Palladio noted this in his measured plan of the Pantheon portico. The center bay is nine and a fraction Vincentian feet wide and the flanking base are eight and a fraction Vincentian feet wide. Eustyle spacing can also correct an optical illusion. Look carefully at the portico of Monticello. Doesn't it appear that the center bay is slightly narrower than the bays on either side. It's not. The bays are equally spaced. It's an optical illusion. Palladio applied eustyle spacing for the portico of the Villa Emo. The center bay is wider, but the portico looks perfectly balanced. We have a similar eustyle Tuscan portico on an American house. Palladio also applied eustyle spacing in the porticoes of the Villa Rotonda. The entrance is emphasized by the wider center bay. Eustyle is not often used on Corinthian porticoes, but we sometimes find it in very sophisticated classical works. The center bay of the national archives is slightly wider. The most important insight we have for Vitruvius is his definition of the three essentials of a work of architecture firmitas, utilitas, and venustas, firmness, commodity, delight. A work of architecture must be firm, that is structurally sound. It must be commodious. That means it must adequately serve the function for which it was designed and it must offer visual delight. It must be beautiful. Okay. Let's look again at this scene of the forum. We see lots of columns. Where did the Romans get this type of construction? Well, from the Greeks, the temple of Hera, in Paestum in Southern Italy dates some 500 years earlier than the forum's buildings. Like the Roman works, the temple's dominant feature is its columns, but we also see that the temple is structurally very elementary, simple post and beam construction, something vertical holding up something horizontal. Also such great temples were primarily an architecture of the exterior. Generally only the priests went inside. Religious ceremonies of sacrifice were normally held outside in front. We'll take up the special polities of Greek classicism in the next session, but in contrast to the Greeks, the Romans were great engineers. They were the original interior decorators. This restored view of the interior of Rome's basilica of Constantine displays an extraordinarily rich interior. Basilicas served as public gathering places and courtrooms. It was important for them to have grand interiors. We also see in this image huge round arches, vaulted ceilings and a semi dome. They were Roman developments, architectural forms made possible by an important invention- cast concrete. The outstanding example of ancient cast concrete construction is the dome of the Pantheon the dominant element of one of the most sublime spaces ever created, a triumph of engineering and design. The panels, or coffers in the dome, were not only decorative, they serve to lighten the weight of the dome. This type of architecture inspired numerous great spaces, particularly in the decades around 1900 in what we call the American Renaissance. A prodigious example is Washington's union station, a masterpiece of Roman classicism. Now when we look again at the forum, we note that not all the columns are structural. The columns on the arch of Septimius Severus on the right and the tabularium in the upper left are not structural. They are decorative. Their purpose was to add character to their buildings. This phenomenon is best expressed in the Colosseum. The Colosseum's arches and vaults are its structure. The columns and their moldings are added to give the building expression, to serve as visual control, to make it speak. The columns, or really half columns, emphasize the building's verticality. They draw the eye up. The moldings above each row of columns emphasize the building's horizontality they lead the eye around the building and visually tie it together. The use of classical columns or orders to give character and expression to buildings is seen in thousands of examples. The classical embellishments of this college library serve no other purpose than to lend the building a dignity of appearance to signal that it houses an important activity. Strip off the embellishments and the building would resemble a power plant. It would have little visual delight. Thomas Jefferson said that man has an innate sense of beauty. We may not know why a building is beautiful, but we know beauty when we see it. This simple courthouse, was designed by builders who had worked for Thomas Jefferson and from whom they learned the proper use of the classical vocabulary. You may know nothing about architecture, but you would likely say, this is an okay looking building. There's something right about it. Likewise, you may know nothing about architecture, but you would say, this building is funny looking. It just doesn't look right. Pretty squat. Well, let's try something skinnier. Well, this doesn't look right either. This is architectural illiteracy. The rules for proportion in classical architecture were worked out by trial and error over many centuries; rules that made buildings visually satisfying. This building was beautiful 2,500 years ago. It still is today. In his treatise, Vitruvius described the rules for governing the types of columns or orders, specifically the three orders that the Romans acquired from the Greeks. We know them of course, as the Doric, Ionic, and the Corinthian. Vitruvius was aware of Tuscan architecture that is the buildings erected by the ancient Etruscans. But since the Etruscan buildings were wooden structures and it all disappeared by Vitruvius's time, he didn't include the Tuscan order in the architectural cannon, nor did he consider the composite to be a separate order. The Romans regarded the composite as an enriched version of the Corinthian order. Nevertheless, the Renaissance architects considered both the Tuscan and the composite to be legitimate orders in their own right and added them to the Canon. So we get the five orders of architecture, the fundamentals, or the starting point of classical design. Vitruvius stated that the module is the basis for the proportioning of an order. The module is the diameter of the lower portion of the column shaft. The module is the standard by which the rest of the building's parts are measured. Each part is so many modules or fractions of modules. The columns of each order generally range from seven to 10 modules tall. The entablatures of each order, or what the columns hold up are generally around two modules tall. Each order has its own system of modular proportions. This illustration shows fairly typical modular systems. However, they can vary. [inaudible]. We see here how different architects have determined what should be the ideal proportions of a Doric order. Each is different, but all within a similar range. It's a matter of personal preference. Some people prefer Palladio's proportions. Some prefer Gibbs's. The proportions vary for the other orders as well, depending on which architect's treatise you are using. So let's now look closely at each of the orders and familiarize ourselves with their various components. We'll start with a detailed look at the simplest order. The Tuscan. Now to have architectural structure, you have to have something vertical holding up something horizontal. The vertical support is the column. The thing being held up is collectively called the entablature. The term entablature comes from the Latin word to [tabula], meaning a board or plank from which we get the Italian tavola or table. The entablature is divided into three main parts, the cornice, frieze, and architrave. The group of moldings at the top collectively make up the cornice. The term cornice derives from the Greek word Coronas, meaning curved. That's where we get the word crown. Below the cornice moldings, which I'll talk about in a moment, is a wide band called the frieze. We get the word frieze from the ancient area of Asia minor called Phrygia. Phrygia was noted for making richly decorated long bands of cloth, hence frieze. Below the frieze is another band called the architrave. The term architrave is composed of two words, arc, a Greek prefix, meaning chief as in Archangel or chief angel and trave from the Latin word trabes, meaning wooden beam. So if the architrave is the chief beam or the chief structural element of the entablature, the architrave can be either plain or composed of two or three overlapping bands called fascia. Fascia is a Latin word for a band or a bandage. We have two fascias here. Okay, let's now return to the cornice. At the top we have an S shape molding, originally serving as a gutter and commonly called the crown molding. You can buy yards of crown molding at any building supply company. The S shaped curve in the crown molding is also called a Cyma curve. Cyma comes from the Greek word cuma, meaning curvy or billlowy as in Cumulus clouds, which are billowy. A fancier term for the crown molding. is cymatium. Below the crown molding, we have a narrow fascia and the underside of the fascia is the soffit soffit derived from the Latin word [suffigo], which means to fasten beneath the underside of a window or door head is also called a soffit. From [soffigo]. We also get the word suffix, which is an ending fastened to a word. Beneath the soffit, we have some moldings that collectively form what we call the bed moldings. Thank of them is being embedded beneath the soffit. The Tuscan bed moldings are the simplest. The top one is a convex quarter round called an ovolo as in oval or ovum, meaning egg. An ovalo is sorta egg shaped. It is supported by a cavetto, a concave molding. The term comes from the Latin Cavus, which means hollowed out as in cave. These cornice moldings were ultimately based on wooden construction and they serve to encase the framing members between the roof framing and the top of the wall as in this demonstration of a colonial American vernacular structure. Here we see crown molding, fascia, soffit and bed moldings just as in the Tuscan order. Now separating the frieze from the architrave is a very narrow projecting van called the taenia, which is the Greek word for a ribbon. It's also the ancient name for a sweatband as well as the medical term for a tapeworm. The Egyptians wrap their mummies in yards of taenia. That is ribbon, not tapeworms. Alright, we've covered the entablature. Let's now look at the column. At the top of the column shaft is the capital, from the Latin word caput meaning head. It's where we get the term decapitate. At the top of the capital is a feature resembling a square board called the abacus. Now we know that an abacus is a bunch of beads on a frame that people use for counting or figuring, but in ancient times, Greek students were given a square board on which they sprinkled sand or dust in which they used their fingers to write or figure. That board was called an abacus. It comes from the ancient word, meaning sand or dust. So an abacus is something you figure on the top piece of the capital resembled that board, hence its name. That's the way we named things. They resemble familiar objects as with a computer mouse. Beneath the abacus encircling the capital is a quarter round circular molding called the echinus. The word derives from the Greek word achinos, which means a sea urchin. As you could see, the echinus in a Greek capital is more elliptical and does resemble the shape of a sea urchin's shell. Below the echinus is the neck and then a half round molding called the astragal. It comes from the Greek word astragalos, the term for the ankle bone, the half round protrusion on either side of your ankle. You may have noticed some plain thin moldings on most of these features. They are called fillets, which are common on Roman orders but not so much on Greek ones. The word comes from the Latin fillum, meaning thread, so fillum means something very thin as in camera film or slick on water or a thin piece of meat. Finally at the base of the column is a large half round molding called the torus. Torus is the Latin word for muscle. The torus on a column base resembled a swelling bicep muscle. The torus is set on the column's bottom element, a square block called the plinth from the Greek plinthos, the word for a brick which it resembles. Having dealt with the elements of the column and entablature let's see if a typical classical building now looks more familiar to us. Can we now better read this Charleston church? Starting at the top, we have crown molding, fascia, soffit, bed moldings, frieze, taenia, and a one fascia architrave. In the capital we have the abacus, echinus, and astragal, and at the base, the torus and plinth. Notice in the pediment, the front gable, that the crown molding is not carried across the base as a pediment. Why? Because it looks better that way. Also, since the crown molding was originally a gutter, there would be no need for a gutter here since little water would collect in that area. What happens when you ignore this rule about the pediment? Well, it doesn't look right. That's just one of the many rules ignored in this illiterate building. The next order to examine is the Doric order. It's named for the Dorians. The Renaissance architects felt it one of the best ancient examples of the Roman Doric order was the lower level of the theater of Marcellus in Rome. Marcus, Claudius Marcellus was a favorite nephew and son-in-law of Caesar Augustus. He died at age 19. This theater, which could hold some 20,000 people, was named in his honor. The theater got pretty beat up over the centuries, but enough of it was intact for a 17th century French architect Fréart de Chambray to record its orders in his book on Roman architecture. The theater's Doric order became a prime model for the Roman Doric order. Note that the Doric capital is similar to the Tuscan. Note also that the column has no base. Ancient Roman Doric columns may or may not have a base. The ancients considered the Doric to be a masculine order and didn't need a base, like real guys don't wear shoes. Greek Doric columns as we will see, never ever have a base. Thomas Jefferson admired the theater of Marcellus's Doric order and use the order on pavilion 10 at the University of Virginia. It's a very strong order and note no column bases, but that doesn't mean it's Greek. It's Roman here. Renaissance architects, however, believed that the direct column should always have a base. Nearly all Renaissance and later treatises show the Doric order with a base. Jefferson demonstrated this Renaissance preference in his design for the university's pavilion four. He gave these Roman Doric columns bases. A defining feature of a Doric entablature is the frieze. It displays triglyphs and metopes. Triglyphs are the brackets showing grooves or glyphs. Now we see only two glyphs in each triglyph. Why call them tri or three? Well, note the half glyphs in either side of each triglyph. Put the two halves together and you would have the third glyph. The spaces between the triglyphs are called metopes. Metope is a combination of two Greek words. Meta means in between as in metamorphosis, an in between state and Ope, which means opening or hollow. It's where we get words relating to the eyes, such as optical. The eye is an opening to one's inner self. Metopes can be plain or have sculptural decorations, but they should always be square, a rule not to violate. Below each triglyph under the taenia is a row of six pegs called guttae. That's plural. Guta singular is the Latin word for a drop. So what does all this mean? Scholars have claimed that classical architecture is a sculptural representation in stone of wooden construction. I think that's particularly true with the Doric order. As we see in this diagram, the triglyphs might be derived from three boards bound together to form the joist. The architrave here is composed of two thick boards to form the chief beam. The triglyphs are set on a horizontal board, the taenia, and are fastened into place with wooden pegs, the guttae. The roof rafter ends, called mutules, project to form a deep soffit and likewise are fastened with guttae. The term mutule is believed to come from an Etruscan word, meaning a projection. It his 1562 treatise on the orders, the Renaissance architect Giacomo Vignola promoted the use of what he defined as the mutualar Doric order, which has its mutules project boldly below the cornice soffit. We see 36 guttae in the reflected plan of the mutules. In Vingnola's version, each mutule is wrapped with a band. Vignola wrote that he developed this version of the Doric order, the mutular Doric from architectural fragments he found in Rome. Vignola's treatise soon became a textbook for many European architects, especially in France, well into the 20th century. Since many Americans studied architecture in France, they learned to use Vignola's mutular Doric. Hence the mutular Doric is quite common in America as we see on this museum building in Washington DC. The mutular Doric was further promoted in this country by a textbook called the American Vignola, by William Ware published in 1902. Ware used Vignola's orders as his authority. The American Vignola became the textbook for nearly all American architectural students for the next 50 years. So it's not surprising to see textbook correct versions of Vignola's mutular Doric on a country school or on a front porch that could be anywhere in America. We now move to the next order, the Ionic. It's believed that the Ionic order was developed in the Greek areas of Asia minor now Turkey in what was called Ionia on the Eastern side of the Aegean. The name Ionia comes from the legendary Greek King Ion, who around 1100 BC brought settlers to the area who were fleeing the Dorian invasion on the other side of the Aegean. Vitruvius said that the Ionic order is a feminine order. The scrolls in the capital suggests the curls in a woman's hair. The column has a base reflecting the notion that women wear sandals. The theater Marcellus also provided the Renaissance architects with what they considered to be the best example of the Roman ionic order. Again, enough of it was intact for Fréart to make a detailed representation of it in his treatise. The Ionic order is enriched with additional moldings. Its bed moldings are decorated with dentils, so-called because they resembled teeth of course, and with an egg and dart molding below it. The taenia here has a supporting molding and the architrave has three fascias, but keep in mind there are always variations. The order's distinguishing feature of course is its capital with its spiral scrolls called volutes. Volute comes from the Latin volvo, which means to row or turn around. It's where we get such words as revolve and revolution or Volvo automobile. Their form probably derives from a ram's horn or possibly a spiral mollusk shell. The ionic capital's echinus is nearly always decorated with an egg and dart molding. Also note the astragal is tucked up tight against the echinus in the ionic order and ionic cornice can be decorated either with dentils or modillions. This illustration is from an 18th century English pattern book by an architect named Batty Langley, a book much used by colonial American builders. The dentil cornice is shown on the left. Modillions are larger and more widely spaced than dentils. Shown are scrolled modillions since their undersides are cut with an S curve, but modillions can also be flat on their undersides. The term modillion comes from the same root as module, which means spacing. Modillions are more widely spaced than dentils. As with triglyph, modillions and dentils symbolized, wooden framing members. Notice that both entablatures have a bulging frieze, termed a pulvinated frieze. Pulvinate comes from the Latin word Pulvinus meaning a cushion or bolster. A pulvinated frieze is an option. A frieze is normally flat. Although dentils and modillions are shown in two separate versions here, it's okay to use both in a single composition. We find them both happily together on this 18th century Charleston, South Carolina porch roof, and note its flat frieze. This detail of the entablature on Palladio's Villa Rotonda shows that Palladio favored the Ionic order using parallel volutes. That is a capital with a pair of volutes facing forward and a parallel pair on the backside. Notice well Palladio's use of a pulvinated frieze and scrolled modillions but with a plain echinus in the capital. Now when you use ionic columns on both the front and sides of a building, you have to deal with how the volutes are to face. As you can see here, it can create an awkward situation when you use parallel volute capitals. The Greeks and Romans dealt with this issue by using what's called a two sided capital for the corner column. Seen in plain. The two sided capital has volutes adjacent to each other on one corner, the capital and a single volute projecting at a 45 degree angle on the opposite corner. The result is that when used on the corner column, the two sided capital looks sorta okay from the front and sorta okay from the side, but it's not ideal, but it works. This mausoleum in a California cemetery illustrates the point. Note how the two sided capital addresses both the end and the sides of the structure. However, the Romans found another way to deal with the situation as seen in the temple of Saturn in the Roman forum outlined in red. Only its portico columns remain today, but looking at its capitals, we see that all four of a capital's volutes project at a 45 degree angle forming what we call angle volutes. We're indebted to the Renaissance architect, Vincenzo Scamozzi for popularizing the angle volute. Ionic capital. Scamozzi was a pupil of Palladio and became his assistant. Later in life, he published his own treatise on the orders. In seeking ancient examples for precedent, we're pretty certain that he examined the 12th century church of Santa Maria in Trastevere in Rome. Like many early Christian churches, it's built of fragments taken from Roman ruins. Inside the church are two columns salvaged from the nearby Baths of Caracalla with angle volute ionic capitals. This became the model for Scamozzi's version of the ionic order and it is the only version of the ionic that Scamozzi published in his treatise. This illustration greatly popularized the use of this form of the ionic. We also know that Scamozzi made the acquaintance of the English architect, Inigo Jones, and we also know that Jones purchased a copy of Scamozzi's treatise. Jones introduced Italian Renaissance Palladianism to England in the early 17th century. His premier work is King James I Banqueting House in London, a splendid Palladian style edifice completed in 1622. Here we see it today. It could pass as a work by Palladio, but we see that Jones made use of Scamozzi's angle volutes in its columns and pilasters rather than Palladio's parallel volutes. Because the banqueting house was a Royal commission, it made angle volutes fashionable. It became the standard version of the ionic order in England. In the early 18th century, British architect James Gibbs published his own treatise on the orders in which he offered only the angle volute version of the ionic order. Since Gibbs's treatise was used by many builders in colonial America, it's not surprising to see numerous 18th century examples. Here is on King's Chapel in Boston. Later on, Thomas Jefferson was persuaded to use Scamozzi type ionic capitals on the Virginia state Capitol because they visually unified the front and side columns. In the early 20th century, Scamozzi type ionic capitals became very popular for porticoes and porches on American homes. Building supply companies produced them by the thousands. In my own neighborhood in Richmond, we owe deed on Scamozzi ionic capitals. We now move to the Corinthian order. The Corinthian order is based on a plant, the acanthus plant. The acanthus plant thrives in the Mediterranean region. In ancient times, it was a symbol of regeneration and immortality. Every spring, it's root vigorously regrows this lush leaf plant. A charming legend recounted in Vitruvius's treatise explains the origin of the Corinthian order. It tells that in the ancient Greek city of Corinth, a freeborn maiden became ill and died before she was able to marry. Her grieving nurse gathered some of the young maiden's favorite possessions, and put them in a basket and placed them on her grave as a gesture of morning. Unwittingly, she set the basket on the root of an acanthus plant. The plant grew, spreading its leaves around the basket and artist and poet Callimachus later passed by the grave and was so taken by the beauty of the leafy basket that he drew it and developed the image for the Corinthian order. And thus we have the Corinthian capital swathed with acanthus leaves. We see a new Corinthian capital here in the process of being created by the artisans of Carrara, Italy. This is one of the new capitals being card for the rotunda at the University of Virginia to replace the badly eroded ones dating from the rotunda's restoration of 1900. These were installed in 2017. Such artistry can still be done. Well, let's now examine the Corinthian order's distinguishing features. Each element of the cornice and architrave is enriched with decorative moldings. A carved acanthus leaf is usually attached to the underside of each of its scrolled modillions. Each of the four sides of the Corinthian abacus is concave and highlighted by a central fleuron or flower. The main body of the capital is enriched with three rows of acanthus leaves. Springing from the middle leaves are stems called caulicoli from the Latin word calus meaning a stalk or stem as in broccoli. Certainly not all Roman Corinthian orders were the same. As with the ionic, there are many variations. We'll look at two of them. The first is a particularly interesting one found on what has long been called the Temple of Vesta in Tivoli, although it is uncertain to which deity it was actually dedicated. As seen in this Piranesi engraving and a photograph, the temple is picturesquely perched on the edge of a cliff several miles from Rome. A distinguishing feature of its capitals is the oversize fleuron or flower on each side of the abacus. It probably is a stylized hibiscus blossom with spiraled pistal. When we compare the Tivoli capital to a standard Corinthian capital, we see that on the Tivoli capital, the rows of the acanthus leaves are compressed, shortening the capital's overall height. Note also that the flutes on the column shaft are squared off at the top rather than rounded as on the standard Corinthian. Modern versions of the temple's Corinthian are rare but can add distinction to a classical work. A conspicuous replication of the order is seen on the Haier building or former bank building on Broadway near Times Square in New York. The order is also used for a colonnade in the Getty Villa museum in Malibu, California. A modified version is seen in a stairwell of one of the mid 19th century additions to the Louvre Museum in Paris. It retains the distinctive oversize fleuron. Finally, an inventive adaptation of the Tivoli order decorates the pilasters of the Brooklyn Historical Society in New York. This demonstrates that if you're well versed in the classical language, it's okay to undertake a creative interpretation of an ancient motif while respecting its integrity. We'll look at one more variation of the Corinthian order. It's more subtle than the Tivoli version, but it's one that we should be aware of because it's ancient source is one of Rome's most familiar landmarks and its capitals have appeared in numerous classical style buildings. The structure in question consists of three columns and their entablature, standing isolated in the middle of the Roman forum. Piranesi showed them dominating his view of the forum in his mid 18th century engraving. The columns were long sought to be the remnant of the temple of Jupiter Stator or Jupiter the steadfast. Scholars have since identified the columns as belonging to the temple of the demi-god twins Castor and Pollux. Palladio recorded the columns in book four of his four books on architecture along with a conjectural image of the temple's elevation and its plan. We see his conjectural but pretty reliable elevation here. A closeup of the temple's capital's reveals unfortunate, but not unexpected damage, but a closer look at the central capital displays the capital's distinguishing feature, the intertwining of the central stems or helicies. It's not certain whether this detail was used on other ancient Corinthian capitals, but the Castor and Pollux capital is the only one to have been published. Their most reliable published image of the Castor and Pollux temple is from Antoine Desgodetz's days. Les Edifices Antiques de Rome of 1682. Desgodetz was a French architect commissioned by Louis the 14th to study Roman ruins. He personally measured all the architectural features he recorded, so we're reasonably certain of their accuracy. The capital is beautifully ornamented with this central intertwining stems, clearly evident. Compared to Desgodetz's version, Palladio's published drawing of the capital is not as carefully depicted. However, Palladio's elevation and plan inspired a reasonably credible facillime of the temple for England's Birmingham Town Hall of 1834. Even so further research along with archeological examination have shown that the temple originally had 11 columns along its sides rather than 15 as illustrated in Palladio's plan and in the Birmingham Town Hall. Perhaps this country's earliest use of the Castor and Pollux temple is found on the pilasters of Robert Mills's Post Office building in Washington completed in 1842. The capitals are reduced by having only one row of acanthus leaves rather than the normal two, but the intertwining stems are clearly depicted. The building is one of Mills's rare uses of Roman orders. He's better known for his Greek revival works. Another mid-19th century example of the capital's use is on the Trinity Methodist church of 1850 facing meeting street in Charleston. The church's form, was inspired by the Maison Carée, an ancient temple in France, which we'll see in a minute. The column capitals closely match Degodetz's published image. A monumental use of the Castor and Pollux order is in the Portico of the Museum of Natural history on the mall in Washington. The capitals are beautifully crafted in light granite. Like the Trinity Church capitals, they closely match published images except both cases, the abacus lacks the egg and dark carving on its top molding and the foliage just below it. We should note that the Corinthian order in general was the favorite order for buildings throughout Rome's Imperial period. The majority of the Roman ruins date from the Imperial era and the majority of the era's buildings use the Corinthian order. Roman ruins employing the Doric and ionic orders are exceptionally rare. The Maison Carée in France seen here is the most intact of all Roman temples. It was dedicated to the grandsons of Caesar Augustus. It displays the richest use of the Corinthian order from Rome's Imperial period. The Supreme Court has a matchless dignity and monumentality. Ancient temples were designed to house gods. They were meant to command all. They did in ancient times and such temple like buildings still do today, especially when expressed with the Corinthian order. We have to be impressed with a building that looks like this. It conveys the message that it houses an important institution, which indeed it does. Likewise, the New York stock exchange, our main temple of finance conveys the message that our investments are secure and properly managed. The Corinthian order on a residence can signal the importance of its occupants. We've now reached the last of the five orders. The composite, the Roman saved the composite for their most special buildings and structures. As its name implies, the composite is a combination of Roman ionic and Corinthian orders. Its capital is very similar to the Corinthian except that instead of helices or caulicoli, its capital is topped by a fully developed ionic capital with diagonal volutes resembling Scomozzi's ionic. This combined with the two rows of Corinthian style acanthus leaves makes the capital a combination or composite of the two orders, Ionic and Corinthian. The differences between the composite and the Corinthian are more apparent when the two orders are placed side by side. Since the composite is the highest of the five orders, it's entablature is normally enriched with a variety of decorative moldings and its frieze can be decorated as well. In some versions of the order its modillions consist of a two part block with a flat soffit. However, the order is often seen with Corinthian type scrolled modillions. The arch of Titus in the Roman forum is considered the earliest intact example of the composite order it's inentablature is heavily ornamented. Its frieze displays figures participating in the Emperor's victory procession. Probably the best preserved ancient composite capitals are found on the interior of the Baths of Diocletian, a monumental late Imperial edifice. Its vast frigidarium was converted to a church by Michelangelo in the 1560s and is now known as Santa Maria Degli Angeli. The granite column shafts are original as are their composite capitals, which are in near perfect condition. The composite order was used infrequently in later classical works, but we ought to be able to recognize. Palladio used the composite on the facade of the Logia Del Capitaniato conspicuously located on Vincenza's main square. It is one of Palladio's rare uses of the composite. Interestingly, Palladio's logia was replicated in the 1930s on huge scale for a Moscow apartment house near red square for high ranking Soviet officials. Its composite capitals are textbook examples. What are likely the largest composite capitals in existence are found on Rome's Basilica of St John Lateran. This massive facade was added to the ancient Basilica in the early 18th century. The capitals are nearly eight feet tall. Compare them with a human figure. Possibly a unique colonial American use of the composite order is found in the tiny church of St James Goose Creek near Charleston, South Carolina. Pairs of composite columns with correctly detailed capitals are part of the church's altarpiece. As with the other classical orders, composite capitals were mass produced by building supply companies in the early 20th century, so it's not unusual to find commercially manufactured capitals on colonial revival houses or apartment buildings, all contributing to the visual interest of our cities and towns and connecting us to an ancient tradition. With this look at the composite order. We've completed our examination of the basic elements of the five orders of Roman classicism. The orders are the foundation of the classical language of architecture. Properly applying the orders can still make our buildings speak, speak eloquently and with the wisdom of tradition. And it does happen. As we see in a quick look at several new classical works. These and many other examples of new classicism demonstrate that the classical language of architecture has validity for today and can add beauty and variety to our built environment. The Institute of Classical Architecture and Art is dedicated to keeping the language alive and to promote its use according to design principles perfected centuries ago. In concluding this session, I think we should be grateful to the Romans for giving us such inspiring architecture to emulate. So thank you Romans, and thank you for joining us in the first of this four part series. I'm Calder Loth and I'll see you for part two: Greek classicism.
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Channel: ClassicistORG
Views: 95,819
Rating: 4.949194 out of 5
Keywords: classical architecture, classical design, classical, architecture, roman architecture, roman classicism, classicism
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Length: 60min 5sec (3605 seconds)
Published: Wed May 02 2018
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