For those of us interested in the deepest
and most fundamental rules of the universe, there are two things we need to know about.
One is to identify the smallest building blocks of matter and the second is to know about
the forces that hold them together. While we know of several forces that govern
the subatomic world, the strongest of them all is called, rather unimaginatively, the
strong force. Now we have to be careful, because it’s
easy to be sloppy in our language. In the 1950s, we used the term strong force to mean
the nuclear force and it probably won’t surprise you to know that I made a video on
why scientists determined that the nuclear force even existed. But in the last 40 or 50 years or so, we’ve
come to understand the strong force in a different way. To begin with, we know that the tiny protons
and neutrons at the center of atoms are made of even smaller particles, called quarks.
Quarks were proposed in 1964 and proven to be real in the 1970s. The existence of quarks
is well established science. Because protons and neutrons are found inside
the nucleus of atoms, we call them by the overarching and generic term nucleons. That’s
basically like how we can distinguish men and women and yet combine the two and call
them by the single term human. Each nucleon consist of three quarks. That’s
a simplified picture of what’s going on inside, but it helps us understand the key
points. You can think of a nucleon as a tiny sphere
with a radius about a quadrillionth of a meter across. The quarks zoom around inside the
sphere traveling at nearly the speed of light. And if you have particles moving at that outrageous
speed, in that ridiculously small volume, you have to have an ultra-mega-strong force
holding it all together. And, because we’re talking about the realm
of the super tiny, the force governing the motion of quarks has to be a quantum force. Now I’ve made lots of videos on quantum
forces. If you’re interested in the subject matter, I recommend watching four other videos,
on quantum field theory, Feynman diagrams, perturbation theory and quantum electrodynamics. But I can give you the high points here. The
simplest of the quantum theories is called quantum electrodynamics or QED. That theory
talks about how electrically charged particles interact by shooting photons back and forth
between each other. The simplest interaction occurs when a charged
particle like an electron emits a photon and then recoils. Now the force holding the quarks inside nucleons
work a little differently. First, the relevant charge is not the electric charge, but the
strong force charge- what physicists call color. I talk about quantum color in yet another
video, but color in this context is basically a different kind of charge. It has nothing
to do with color in the normal sense of the word. Sorry about that by the way. My tribe
of particle physicists do have an, um.. idiosyncratic way of naming things. In any event, unlike electric charge, which
comes in two varieties: plus and minus, the strong charge comes in three varieties, named
red, blue and green- again, nothing to do with regular color. The particles that the colored quarks exchange
are not photons, but rather particles called gluons. The photon is the particle of the
electromagnetic force and the gluon is the particle of the strong force. And, in analogy
with QED or quantum ELECTROdynamics, we call this theory QCD for quantum CHROMOdynamics.
Get it? Chromo? Color? Alright, sometimes I’m a little embarrassed by my tribe. For those of you who are fans of Feynman diagrams,
we draw an exchanged photon as a wavy line, while a gluon is a corkscrew. And, just like
all Feynman diagrams, the Feynman diagram of two quarks exchanging a gluon corresponds
to an equation that a sufficiently diligent student can solve. But it’s pretty hard, so kids- don’t try
this at home. So how is QCD different from QED? Both involve
exchanging force carrying particles between other particles carrying charge. The photon is massless. The gluon is massless. The photon has no electric charge. The gluon
has no- oh- wait a minute…there’s a difference. Gluons carry the strong charge. They have
color. And that little difference has a huge consequence. Because gluons interact with colored particles,
gluons can interact with other gluons. That’s way different than two photons, which are
completely oblivious of each other’s existence. And it qualitatively changes the behavior
of the strong force. Let me explain. If you have two magnets and kind of play around
with them, you quickly find out that they feel a stronger force between them if they’re
close to one another and a weaker force if they’re far apart. That’s how the electromagnetic
force works. On the other hand, if you have a rubber band,
you find that the two ends don’t feel much of a force when the band isn’t stretched.
But, as you stretch it, the force gets stronger and stronger. This pulls the quarks back into
the nucleon. And that explains why quarks don’t just get knocked out of nucleons at
low energy. Now, as it turns out, if you smack a quark
hard enough, you can send it careening out of a nucleon. But the force between the quark
and the rest of the nucleon acts like a rubber band that is continuously stretching. Sometimes
we call this a string of color force. And, if you hit the quark hard enough and stretch
the string enough, you can eventually break the string. But here’s the tricky thing. When we break
it, the energy that was stored in the string converts into matter and antimatter, specifically
quarks and antiquarks. This process can go on for a while with more stretching and breaking
and creating quarks and antiquark pairs. In the end, the particles all pair up and what
we get is a bunch of particles all traveling more or less in the same direction as the
quark that got knocked out of the nucleon. Physicists call this blast of particles a
jet. And we see jets all the time. Here is a picture
of a real event collision in the CMS detector, one of the big LHC experiments. See those
sprays of particles? Those are jets. So those are the big ideas of quantum chromodynamics.
The strong force has a different charge and force carrying particle than quantum electrodynamics,
but, in some respects, they aren’t so incredibly different. The big difference is the fact
that the force carrying particle is itself charged with, as we have seen, dramatic consequences. The subatomic realm is really a pretty crazy
place.
