often when we think about the paranormal and pseudoscience it is all sorts of topics like ESP so paranormal ideas about um about cognition or good old crop circles uh apparent horrible ideas about agronomy um so there's the awkward moment in the wheat field or archeology you know the pyramids were built using advanced alien knowledge very important advice or you know or paranormal aspects of zoology and in fact you know that they're they want me to do it a skeptics talk next year so maybe I could do a specific a cryptozoology one or something like that but what I wanted to talk about today is as a paranormal aspects in the earth sciences and there is some overlap in there between the paranormal Earth Sciences and some other aspects so in particular here here is a poll from a couple years ago and so this is the 60 degree mark to give us our orientation and the highest one here in terms of belief is the percentage of Americans who believe we can influence the physical world via positive thought and the next one down believed advanced civilizations like Atlantis once existed and that ties into today's topic where as you know down here we have you know only twenty-one about 28% are confident that the earth is 4.5 billion years old so yeah we were looking at paranormal concepts about the nature of the planet Earth and we'll start with something that's that's fairly mundane and in its initial phases wasn't obviously incorrect and that's true of some of these as you'll see in other ones some of these other cases when the ideas were initially proposed they were obviously incorrect but in this case it wasn't and this is the story of Atlantis so Plato is our initial author of the story of Atlantis and it's actually described in two of the dialogues in the kritis of the Timaeus which are two of the later dialogues there was going to be his scholars are fairly certain he was going to have an end part to the trilogy and I can't remember the name of which of the people that he was having the dialogue with it would be but they did that is known and it's described in this and he gives certain characteristics of this place he's describing called Atlantis I said it existed 9,000 years ago from his time so that would be what you add a two and a half yeah - animal enniaa - that it was said to be a large island larger than Africa plus Asia combined but keep in mind the word Africa would describe sort of the northern part of the Africa Libya basically today and Asia would be basically Anatolia sold sizable landmass but a large island beyond the pillars of Herakles normally interpreted as being the Rock of Gibraltar and its counterpart in Africa so outside the Mediterranean and it's described as a as an island nation which had conquered the other islands in the ocean sea in the Atlantic as well as the western and southern part of the Mediterranean lands as close to Greece as Egypt in the south and Terranea Italy in the north and specifically it was it was opposed by an Athens which he said existed 9,000 years before his time that was the great rival of of Atlantis is that Athens existed at that time and earlier Athens and that was sort of the point of the stories Athens standing alone defeated them and liberated the Mediterranean from the rule of the Atlanteans and then there was a huge cataclysm and in a day in a night the entire and Athenian army was swallowed up by the earth and the land of Atlantis sank beneath the waves that's the story or those are the major parts of the story now people will talk about the myth of Atlantis but it's important point out this is not a myth it is not coming out of the corpus of common beliefs in traditional Greek mythology it is not a legend there aren't stories of a particular hero and his deeds and importantly there is not a single mention of Atlantis prior to the existence of Plato not a single one despite the fact we have historians in Greek literature who are writing about the history of the world prior to that they're not mentioning it so no mention prior to plate up we don't see it in Greek histories we don't see it in Egyptian histories despite the fact in the prettiest and the Timaeus Plato says that this story was transmitted through a he tells a series of people including so long the great who heard it from Egyptian priests but the Egyptian records don't talk about it the Babylonian literature doesn't talk about it and in fact this is Plato being Plato he's using it as a case study and he's using it as an allegory Oh allegories not a bad word for this guy an allegory for how he says specifically wouldn't be interesting to see how an ideal state would act against an overwhelming power and then he goes and then one of his in this story will either prettiest or Tobias's you know my father heard a story from his grandfather who heard a story that Athens existed 9,000 years ago in amazing coincidence the ideal state you're describing and it faced an overwhelming power and yet won the day so there are some people who would say oh Plato couldn't come up with this idea on his own to which I say huh I mean worryin Baltic on here we know that human imagination is actually pretty big and people can come up with great concepts we have imaginative people and it's not like that was invented in 1950 you know it was not wasn't invented in the 19th century there were very clever people in the past and I think we all acknowledge Plato was one of the cleverest yeah we even have a term for this it's all kind of history absolutely yeah yeah all you exactly it's an alternative history and we know that Plato would come up with really imaginative concepts and scenarios in other in other of his work for example in a the symposium on love he has various people in the dialogues give how did love come to be and they each tell a story and these aren't stories that are coming from the corpus of mythology that we know of from from other writers it's Plato came up with it himself probably the best the most famous modern version of one of those stories is if you've ever seen Hedwig and the Angry Inch the core a core aspect of that comes from one of the stories in in Plato's symposium on love so people would talk about we talk about Atlantis on and off from Plato's time so from that point on it does become part of the discourse of people some people saying Plato imagined the whole things others saying no no it must be real and it goes on and on throughout later antiquity in the Middle Ages into you know early modern times and so forth and especially the sort of a modern incarnation of Atlantis really comes out of America and that's through this guy's ignatius congressman Ignatius Donnelly he was a member of the Minnesota House of Representatives later the Minnesota Senate he was a US congressman for Minnesota part of the Radical Republican Party or the radical Radical Republican section of the Republican Party and was eventually lieutenant governor of Minnesota so not a minor figure of his time at least locally but he's remembered today I think mostly by Wright because of his writing of Atlantis the antediluvian world and actually had a sequel about Ragnarok and he actually started to incorporate the science that was coming out at the time including the oceanography people were now doing soundings sounding expeditions in various parts of the world we had an idea what the depth of the ocean could be and here was his body picture oh here's Atlantis because there's a profile of the Atlantic and that's the Bermudez here and Madeira over here there's the Azores any identified ah here it is it's dolphins ridge this is actually Atlantis but more so than that indicating where he thought Atlantis was was his idea of what Atlantis meant for the history of humanity because he came up with this idea that Atlantis was sort of the founder culture for most of the rest of the world that that plato was correct both in its age that it existed about 9,000 years before Plato and its position that was beyond The Pillars of Hercules which meant the Atlantic Ocean but he had it colonized many many parts of the world the areas in white were the regions that he interpreted as being colonies of Atlantis so it was the ancestral homeland for what was interpreted at times the Aryan and the Semitic peoples you know we now recognize these as language groups they're not ethnic groups but this is you know the 19th century people are still thinking that these are actual lineages of people he considered the religion of Egypt and the Inca at least as well as known as they were in the 19th century as being direct survivors of Atlantean Sun worship that the Islanders were Sun worshipers that the pagan gods that we read of in Norse and Greek and Phoenician and so forth mythology were just mythologized versions of the kings and queens of Atlantis and that these various spots showed you here are at were colonies of the Atlanteans that they were the culture ringers the rest of the world was a sin a savage state that culture basically began in Atlantis and it spread out from there and the Atlanteans were the foundation of all high civilizations from his point of view but then it was in fact destroyed by terrible convulsions and that survivors who happen to have been a boats or in the colonies whatever but miss remember this over time and this became the this story that in among the Jews were remembered as the great flood and the Greek says deucalion's flood and as Atlantis separately and so on and so forth up and then a lot of of writers both people who thought they were writing nonfiction and fiction writers picked up on this and so um the the antediluvian world action was very influential aspired a lot of later people the theosophist I'll talk about fika Theosophists in a fifth in a bit they are a religious movement at the late 19th early 20th century Edgar Allen Poe refers to this I didn't mention it but Jules Verne Jules Verne his view of Atlantis comes in part from this the psychic Edward Cayce his vision of Atlantis is really a donnelly version Donovan the Donovan song of Atlantis was basically a donnelly as a donnelly version of Atlantis and it inspired someone near and dear to a heart hearts of a lot of us here Jarrell talking and the story of númenor Numenor itself remember Newman or after the fall is known in Kenya or syndra Nest Atalante the down fallen there was no there was no hiding it toki an intended Numenor to have been he is Atlantis myth and it's what was miss remembered by later people as Atlantis and its Donnelly's Atlantis in many ways Numenor is the founder of high civilization among men around the world and they themselves carrying on the tradition of the first age elves but spreading it to savage people around the world eventually though Numenor collapsing but having found many colonies of which Gondor and are nor were two of the last they had founded many other colonies what if you actually get into the silmarillion of the akalabeth primarily there were many other colonies in all the continents of the world that the númenóreans had founded but all of them other than Gondor and Arnor eventually fell into darkness as atlantis its OSS Numenor itself did and the Valar you know they they they say hey boss we're not dealing with this anymore and arrow and God you know knocks Numenor off the face of the earth and decides hey this whole Flat Earth is a bad idea let's make it a sphere so people have been trying to place where Atlantis went throughout history this is actually from at early modern were by Rubik a Swedish author who amazingly decided it was in Sweden um and but you know people had said okay well maybe beyond the pillars of Herakles doesn't mean what the words actually say they mean so maybe it's actually within the Mediterranean and so people have spotted it at various locations here or other people yes is outside the pillars but maybe it's other spots around the world in the new world or Antarctica or Sweden and so forth so um a common trope in late 20th century mid to late 20th century discussions is that it is actually supposed to represent ferrah or now call it santorini an island in the Mediterranean which went Foom it the central core of the volcano you could see it right there these are the edges of the caldera after the huge eruption within historic early historic times and although this may have inspired sort of pneumatically the idea of great disasters it's important to go back and look at what plato actually wrote about atlantis and other than the great disaster aspect of it it doesn't seem to have been a primary inspiration to it this wasn't its own culture this wasn't a dominant power that faced an Athens that existed you know thousands of years before Athens existed and so forth so it may have been in part in inspiration but I think it's incorrect to say Thera was Atlantis there was no Atlantis outside the brain of Plato but he gave us a great idea and an idea that's lived through the ages of course there are no spaces for continents in the deep sea now we now know the deep sea much better than we used to and despite what they'll say on the animal on Animal Planet we actually know the deep sea extraordinarily well it's what we don't know it is down to a very small fine-grained level but we know the big pattern super superduper well um and this is the one part of the ocean we know really super duper ooper duper well because most a lot of the techniques used to do deep sea research has been done in the northern Atlantic and central Atlantic before anywhere else so there is no spot for a continental mass in here we know that in continental rock in oceanic rock are radically different from each other we don't actually have space for continents in there that's not to say that there aren't some submerged continent we continental rocks as I'll show in a bit but there is no space for a very very large Atlantis out in the Atlantic now Atlantis is sort of less famous but still in science fiction and fantasy circles not unfamous cousin Isla Moria and this is one where we most definitely know where the concept came from because it's an actual journal article that you can find in the quarterly journal of science by this guy PL Slater who was a bio geographer of the 19th century and he was trying to describe how he interpreted the distribution of certain types of animals and plants that were common to the Indian Ocean region and so he's talking about a law a long long sentence here but the anomalies of the mammal fauna Madagascan must be explained by supposing that end to the existence of Africa and its present shape a large continent occupied parts of the Atlantic and Indian Oceans stretching out towards what is now America to the west and to India and its islands to the east and blah-blah-blah-blah-blah for which I should propose the name Lemuria we know where this word comes from it's his paper and it means land of lemurs that's exactly where the word Lemuria comes from so when you got you know if you go to your psychic oh I remember when I was in Lemuria funny that they happened to know back then what the bio geographer was going to name it in the nineteenth century now the idea of sunken land masses was actually the par for the course in in geology and biogeography in the 19th century so prior to the recognition that continental masses can move laterally how do you explain discordant distribution of organisms or rocks in the geologic record or the present world well one idea is that what is currently under the waves may have once been above the water we know the reverse is true to some degree because we'll find oceanic rock or at least aquatic rock marine rock on the continents you go to the Cretaceous rocks in the middle of Kansas and it's ocean rocks you go to the top of not Everest and it's shallow marine limestone's so people thought perhaps we know that oceanic rock can be pushed upwards maybe stuff that's in the deep sea was once above the waves and so jog by bio geographers paleo geographers came up with ideas of alternative shapes of continents thinking that the latitude and longitude coordinates of any particular spot on the earth haven't changed but what's changed the vertical displacement and so for instance right here this would be a version of Lemuria connecting Madagascar and India and here's yet another incarnation from other works I ideas of a transoceanic land bridges that's another thing we know that land bridges exist and have a semi ephemeral nature the Isthmus of Panama being the most famous example of that the essence of Panama didn't exist before about 15 million years ago only fully formed by three million years ago so we know such things could exist and before the deep sea was mapped out to the degree it was and sampled by drilling we didn't know there weren't continental rocks down there and so this idea was certainly a reasonable one given the nature of the science at the time the science of the 20th century showed no this is incorrect that most oceanic rock is a thin crust of the salt of a volcanic rock it doesn't have the continental rock composition when we map out the surface of it we don't see these spots and instead what we find out is that the continents themselves and the oceanic rock are moving horizontally more so than moving vertically that plate tectonics is an operation but before that idea was there this this loom Orion concept the sunken continent idea was part of the mainstay of a lot of research so here was from a Huxley paper based on work by heckle before him and there's Lemuria he doesn't actually give the geography for today showing modern geography but here's the idea that Lemuria may have been the homeland for the ancestral people that then distributed around the world so this is not a intended to be a paranormal research this is antennas a mainstay scientific paper at the time but in the late 19th and early 20th century Lemuria was claimed by part of the New Age movement and anyone who thinks the New Age movement is new has to go back and look at sort of the history of religious ideas over time almost anything you find in the New Age movement of the 1980s and 90s was present in the 80s and 90s the 1880s in the 1890s and a real founder of these ideas was a Madame Blavatsky who developed a new religion at the time called theosophy and here are some of the volumes that came out from that it in court bill that's key wanted to incorporate the new discoveries of science of the late 19th century this included evolution geologic time philology the history of languages and so forth that she felt that earlier attempts earlier religions because they didn't incorporate that people weren't going to pay attention to them so she tried to work that into this new religion so it's a religion that accepts the change of that humans today were not always of the shape that they are now the continents today weren't always the shape they were then and so forth um but she didn't actually ground all that stuff and check it by the science of the time yeah II was being a yes yes then I'll have a picture of dr. lamb coming up as a real example of it that's a good example yeah so here was not from her but one of her disciples a map of it Lemuria at its greatest extent so this would be the Lemurian region and this particular view of Lemuria as a place where ancient cultures were that weren't quite human this made its way into popular culture so people like Edgar Rice Burroughs and so forth started incorporating that eventually Marvel Comics the Marvel Universe has Lemuria as well as Atlantis in there as rival powers and so forth and in fact in the theosophist view we are just the latest incarnation of people that the first people were a theory they didn't have physical form and then there was the race of Hyperborea you may recognize these terms showing up in the writings of other authors of the early 20th century and then the Lemurian people and then the Atlanteans and then finally we are the fifth root race now there are real sunken land bridges and real drowned continental regions and doggerland as mentioned is one example of that at the height of the last ice age which coincidentally probably almost certainly would have been about the time that Atlantis um so the the height the peak of the last ice age was about 18,000 to 14,000 years ago and the big deglaciation the big melt back begins about twelve thousand eleven thousand years ago uh when all that ice is bound up in what all that water has bound up in continental ice that means sea levels lower as that ice melts water floods and covers the land so there were points when much of the land in the North Sea was above sea level and so it was an inhabitable region uh there was no English Channel there were sort of English Channel River that would have been there similarly in North America we would be able you go to Ocean City or Atlantic City and then you'd have to drive for another hour or so to get to the beach Beringia another famous example of that the the water between Siberia and Alaska is very shallow and as the ice builds up on the continents sea level drops and animals including humans could migrate back and forth between Asia and North America and you could see Russian from there Russia from there at the time and it doesn't have to be in a cold area the sea level drop is global we say as a eustatic sea level drop and so during the glacial Maxima well glaciers at the largest extent Tasmania Australia and New Guinea are one landmass and the name given to that land mass is Sahul and a large part of the Malay Archipelago is also connected by land that's called soon de or soon to land so it is true there are spaces that do get covered up by water as the ice melts and drowned these happened before written records but they are something that ever have happened within the history of humanity oh these lines so these are various bio Geographic lines where we see in different groups of organisms animals and plants and so forth the influence of Asia versus Australia within Indonesia some of the in some places the Australian the the Asian animals get further into the archipelago and in other places they're they're closer to the mainland of Asia and the Wallace the Weber and Linacre lines are just different barriers there that we've seen well absolutely yeah Flores the I smell it's Florida you know other than the very northern part of the state you don't have much of Florida left oh and here's actually a large fairly large continental mass Zealandia most of Zealandia is underwater only the islands of New Zealand are still above water now this is actually a much more recent flooding a much a more ancient flooding event it's been sinking down for a while but just goes to show that yes there is to some degree the rise and fall of land masses and in honor of our our main guest of honor at the convention there is a drowned land bridge in between Westeros and Essos and this is in its in the books that the arm of door so the peninsula on which Doran is on was once connected a few about a couple tenths of 10,000 years ago or 11,000 years ago something of that nature with Essos and in the war between the first men and the children of the forest when the first men migrated into what we now call Westeros the the children the forests called upon the gods to smash and break the arm of Dorne and there's only a small archipelago the stepstones left in between and if you've read the world of Ice and Fire the compilation of the history they saw their masters who saying you know clearly this is the you know since magic isn't real clearly this is just a folk retelling and simply it was the rise of sea level which flooded these load lands so so now moving from southern continents to the Hollow Earth the idea that we live know that the earth is hollow beneath our feet or else we'll see if there's even more radical suggestions there's all sorts of different people who have come up with Hollow Earth ideas sort of a compilation of a bunch of different ones the idea of chambers beneath our feet in a spherical earth goes back some way so here's from 16 64 characters Munda subterraneous one of the great works of geology of the 1600s and an attempt to explain what we can now use geophysics to explain with the science at the time and so recognizing that there are these volcanoes then we have fire coming out of the earth there must be chambers of fire inside the earth and instead of thinking of shells he thought there were pockets of different sorts of heat that eventually would emerge on the surface of the earth is fire but we also know that water comes out of the earth we have Springs so there's also chambers of water and the water comes out at various spots and in fact he used this to explain where the fire pockets and the water pockets meet that's where we get hot springs but where it's just water pockets that's where we get cold springs so not a bad idea given that everything underneath the feet was you know literally terra incognita it attempt to explain things now a more radical idea about the Hollow Earth came from this gentleman Edmund Halley much more famous for something else he discovered great mathematician great astronomer and so forth and here's a picture of him early in life and here he is late in life and he thought the thing the thing to highlight his work is he's holding his hand a picture of the Hollow Earth and so this is his Halley's model it's actually in order to save printing costs in the philosophical transactions of the Royal Society they actually had two separate papers using the same your space so one had to do with with sound and music and the other have to do with his idea so he's not saying that this is the music of the spheres or whatever but oh you know it kind of works well and his idea was that the earth was comprised of three shells and a solid core and that there were there's air in between them and the shells were in his opinion about the size of Venus and Mars and then the core would be about the size of the moon now he didn't get the values quite right you know those you know your astronomy the shell that would represent Venus would be almost as big as the shell that's the earth but at the time they didn't really have those values down that well the reason for him thinking that the earth was hollow and that these separate shells that were moving independently of each other was to explain the migration of the Magnetic Pole of the earth so he thought ah there's we had already observed by his time period that the magnetic pole was beginning to shift around and so how do we explain that well there was no way to actually sample the material beneath his feet to great depth so given a lack of data he said this might be an explanation the math works out kinda sorta uh and he said he pointed to Saturn and say look here we've got an example of a writ of a ring that can orbit a planet without touching it anywhere so why could it not be that shells are orbiting each other inside the earth and he said well if so they might be inhabited why would God create such great amount of space and then not inhabit it but if it's inhabited there must be some sort of source of light and he didn't know what that would might be so we thought maybe this like glowing vegetation down there or the rocks were giving off gases that glowed or whatever uh that idea was out there uh but he didn't do that much with it however our more modern concept if that's the appropriate term of of Hollow Earth's really stems from this guy Simms another American so Captain John Cleves Symmes of the US Army is his dates late 1700s early 1800s he served in the war of 1812 went on speaking tours and writing tours describing his idea that the earth is hollow that he would point to people like Hallie and some other researchers and he thought was habitable with them with a number of solid concentric spheres one within the other and here was his new contribution that is open at the poles at about 12 to 16 degrees he pledges his life in support of this truth and is ready to explore the Hollow Earth if the world will support and aid him in this undertaking now consider the time he's living in Lewis and Clark have just gone on their great expedition and showed all this great new land for America I can find America land too inside the earth and so he thought depending upon where he was in his writing that there were as many as five interested spheres later on he got down to maybe it's just one sphere his innovation were what became known as Simms holes which are big openings at the top of the planet he thought that the that the Northern Lights were actually reflections into the atmosphere of the internal radiance of the earth shining outward yeah there we go yes that's no moon it's the earth um and so yeah I was encouraging a voyage of discovery to go there and so here's a model from Sims onea that the great compilation of his work and that parts of it might be illuminated by the Sun and the moon depending upon when we are in the seasons but the rest of it might have to be illuminated by a great central Sun now those of you who know you're Edgar Rice Burroughs and so forth know that pellucid are and other internal world stories really draw directly out of this an inhabited internal earth of probably eternal sunlight because the sun is shining there all the time and so here's actually for long after his death is in Harper's Magazine they're still talking about here's a Simms hole as it would appear to a Lunarian with the telescope so now we're going to move from the reasonable to a really weird idea this is Cyrus tweed or s he asked his followers to call him Koresh that's almost never a good thing if you know your recent history uh was a quack cure physician and mystic he founded a religion which he modestly called Koresh anity and they actually were one of these utopian religions and communities and they set up a utopian a home in Estero Florida and he held that the world was hollow and concave and that when we look up we're seeing a spheroid of various compositions where light paths travel and all these sorts of weird curves um and yeah here's another model of it there's there's this the sky above us and that the moon the full moon is a reflection of the earth below distorted as we look up and the planets are optical illusions and yeah yeah uh yes the earth is not convex the so-called proof of convexity um now he actually did give him credit he wanted to test this hypothesis so he had his community build the wreck delineator and this is going to be this long extended straight pole and what they thought is if you kept on doing you do it however many feet it was and then you put the second one over here you disassemble this one and go up and as long as you keep it level if the earth is convex eventually it's going to get higher and higher above the land but if the earth is concave eventually you're going to encounter the land so he had his team go out there and here they are to setting up the wreck delineator and working on it and lo and behold he never actually had it to either it always stayed sort of level and that was kind of puzzling um they said that doesn't that doesn't follow either model and now of course the thing is the tolerances on this you know this is wood and metal and it's just gonna flex a little bit and a little flexion over a long period of time is going to keep things sort of level but at least give him credit he was trying to test his hypothesis a mobile though or something like that or a drop level or anything it's a point Center yeah exactly yeah yeah there are there are lots of issues with this idea yeah um so and now for something really weird okay we're start with something that actually isn't particularly strange and these are Numa liditz Numa lids are a type of calculus planked locale care is actually not plankton they're benthos they're macroscopic unicellular protists they're in fact specifically a group called the foramen efference foramen difference are sort of armored amoebas they are a single-celled organism that played out a shell of calcium carbonate of tums and they live inside that interval pseudopods which they grab particles of food now there are many types of forums which are are planktonic they actually float in the water and many types which are benthic that live on the sea floor and my plants con or plankton that I referred to was actually a cheek because these are benthic ones and they're benthic because they're huge these are definitely macroscopic organisms even though they're unicellular they cheat they have multiple nuclei they are common in the Eocene tamiya seen in shallow water sediments we do have close relatives of them today which are our macroscopic they're among the largest single celled organisms out there and they were so common in the Eocene to the Maya scene particularly in what's called the Teton region sort of the Indian Ocean plus Mediterranean region that there are many lime stones where the primary component are Numa Lititz now part of that area to tie things to to ancient Egypt some of that limestone became a large part of the components of the limestone of the great pyramids yeah so you actually have these limestone's where you could see these macroscopic disc shaped objects and some of the greek writers refer to this they said we these ancient art of these ancient ruins we looked at their surface and you could see the lentils that the slaves who built the pyramids were eating that were baked to stone in the hot Egyptian Sun so that's the oldest record we have of four amps in the rock record and their Numa liditz they're fairly big on that they could be the size of quarters um many of them are smaller they could be the size of quarters or quite quite impressive objects that actually is a it's not a toy sir but and they're actually quite beautiful in cross-section they have multiple chambers within them and so here's a limestone where they've planed off the surface and in fact there are many specialists in in in forums because they're very useful they do evolve relatively rapid rates and they were very common so they're useful for indicating moments in geologic time and paleo environments and so forth so there are all sorts of specialists in carbonate geology who look at for AMSA various sorts including Numa liditz and one such person was Randolph Kirkpatrick worked for the Natural History Museum in London he was with their forum worker who in his own work in the publish in the published journals was a reasonable person but on his own developed a radical new hypothesis because what happened was he started to see Numa lids everywhere everywhere and so here's his book yes it's so called it yes here's the new maillis fear an account of the organic origin of so-called igneous rocks and the abyssal red clays so here he was looking at a sand grain a silica sand grain and looking inside and he said look I can see the new maletas and here he drew him here's inside volcanic rock and look he could see the Numa linton's they were there and here it is in a piece of granite and inside diamonds and inside a meteorite and so he became convinced because he was literally seeing them everywhere he became convinced that these objects that everything was made of Numa Lititz everything was made of Numa liditz and so he thought that you know that igneous rocks were just sort of melted Numa Lititz and that that solicit lastik sedimentary rocks so sand grains and so forth that would make a sandstone those were derived from igneous rocks which themselves were Numa Lititz now he wasn't quite willing to say and I was sort of misleading by saying a universe made of plankton Lisa that meteorites were made of plant of Numa lid as well he actually thought that knew that meteorites had to have been terrestrial that they were volcanic rocks that were blown up and came back down because he said well we all know that none of the other worlds are inhabited so that would be crazy to think there are new militants and other planets so they were just chunks of Earth rock made of Numa Lititz that were blown up and came back down so instead of the standard model rock cycle and I teach my students and so forth it was this new version everything is made of plankton um so you know you never know the world can be very different from certain points of view and these are just some examples of people who've come up with some radical new ideas so I thank you guys for showing up you
