‘Nick From Home’ Livestream #39 - Mima Mounds

good morning everybody welcome to Ellensburg Washington USA the local time is 848 a.m. and in 12 minutes or so we will begin our discussion this morning mime amounts 12 minutes from now at the top of the hour I'm a little scrambled hang on I got it set up a couple more things whoo it's a beautiful morning here how's everything going there good morning Patrick Julie Annabelle Rika hello good morning good afternoon Bonnie Scotland hello from the UK love to see those distant places with us this morning that's the whole reason for this weekend morning session rotterdam holland good morning I'm really just kind of cherry-picking the the European Japan any any distant places Barcelona good morning YUM talking about close to home here this morning Jason Tohoku good morning blue forest roads you've been a regular with us so no offense to the North Americans I'm glad that you're with us but Maldives oh my lord it's a good morning from Finland peyto two two two good morning it's an Aberdeen Scotland good morning it's it's an idyllic morning here I realize in the eastern part of the US it's snowing or whatever in mid-may but here could not be better so I'm glad that we're back outside ladders everywhere all sorts of painting equipment mostly hidden I think behind the chalkboard but I asked the guys Luxembourg good morning I asset Coast UK oh the Dubai oh good lord this is exciting I asked the guys if they would mind cleaning up this area because they're taking the weekend off Belgium good morning the People's Republic of Western Washington good one Dale so it feels great to be back outside and the weather looks good for most this morning and tomorrow morning York Shire Toronto wonderful let's look at tomorrow's schedule I don't even know if I need to show it but I guess I feel better if I do this is the week that was we were mostly in Eastern Washington this week talking about the ice age talking about the ice age floods this is past now but all these shows are available to watch in replay form including the live comments and there's a bunch of other comments down below so if you missed a few of those and want to get caught up on what we're doing that's great you don't have to obviously but this weekend we're in Puget lowland we're in western Washington firmly both today and tomorrow and you'll see will will have reason to leave western Washington both this morning and tomorrow morning but for the most part our discussion will be anchored with the my mountains this morning near Olympia Washington and then Puget Sound and talk of tsunami deposits oh we have a friend this morning what do you think the painters so this is Bijou and he is happy that he doesn't have to be nervous this morning the painters who are wonderful fellows and have been working extremely hard Alex and his three boys are not here today and tomorrow so this guy can go back to business as normal at least for the next couple of days isn't that right you got friends you want to go visit with or did you want us did you want to say hi to these guys did you want to say hi no okay so I assume our visuals are go Kay and our audio is okay I think I've given up being paranoid about it because then working more or less even on the weekends now and Liz is inside using the wireless but that doesn't seem to be an issue good good good good good okay I suppose you're gonna be wanting to get back inside at 10 o'clock I'll have to remember that terrific how about a few more hellos to people this morning and then I'll start thinking seriously about what we're up to this morning yeah Jackie I head to Google five by five to some I think it's a military thing saying everything all clear all good or something like that Hermiston Oh what the heck we'll shout out some of the western North America people Jasper Georgia Kathy and Australia of course Thank You Kathy for all of your interests Chewelah Evelyn good morning Newcastle Australia Livermore multi I'll have to google that one multi Washington London Canada New Orleans ground mound Washington it's got a nice ring to it another UK and other Netherlands dick hello Queens New York always fun to see these places and I enjoy Anchorage good morning I enjoy watching the replays and seeing all these comments and I see every last comment it's always a pleasant thing kind of self-indulgent I must say but I'm mostly looking at the comments I'm not really looking at me I promise Italy's here with us this morning good ob/ob shoes the issues interested in the prop this morning which I'm not even really going to use as a prop for teaching but I am going to use it a little bit a beautiful class Hall front VIN means bakery why not go for it man I don't know croissants are there healthy for cats right a lot of advice from some of you by the way lifestyle advice dandelions and hair on the neck hey man whatever whatever feels you go for it you're here aren't you you having a good time out here yeah a couple minutes you check make sure we're okay here I think you need I think you need more of the globe I've already lost one of my pieces our paper hang on so yeah we got a minute so you set up your little bucket of water right if your rags for your chalkboard just fine okay perfectly calm out here then set some pages on a little bench next to the upwind of the water bucket go inside come back out pages are in the water bucket blew into the water bucket krispies pages that's life just dribble done whoo you know wake myself up here we got one minute let me think about what we're doing I'll come up with something good morning Madison Wisconsin and we will begin thank you for joining us this morning almost up this evening thank you for joining us this morning my name is Nick pretty sure okay well good morning to you all thank you for joining us welcome to my backyard I'm a geology teacher at the college in town I've been doing these live streams for quite a few weeks now during this global pandemic and we continue this morning with a discussion of my mounds so I've been coached up in the last few days I've heard both Miami and Mima Miami and Mima from various different people here in Washington but I've been assured from the Olympia people and we're look we're going to a specific place to at least to start with this morning here's my backyard in Ellensburg Washington here Seattle that's a two-hour drive up and over the Cascades that Snoqualmie Pass you know we've talked about many of these things in this series here's the state capital of Olympia and to the southwest of Olympia is a little Nature Preserve a Natural Preserve my mum mounds something or other it's not a state park but it's land that's been set aside because of these unusual mime amounts so my first point is that I'm saying Miami this morning and if you heard me ma I'm not saying it's incorrect but the locals here say my muscle we're saying Miami damn it okay Mima mounds now I've got a couple of preamble comments for us this morning to set the stage for our discussion and then we'll get right into it the first comment is by now you know that I teach geology 101 and have been every academic term for 30 years and so I have experience dealing with 19 year old kids and I have experienced with them in the field we live in such an amazing area here in Ellensburg that within our to our lab periods they're literally just 2 hours long they meet once a week depending on the week we have 4 field trips that we can cram into a two hour window like we got the two vans outside the building we say good morning here we go jump in the vans here we go we drive ten minutes ten minutes out to a field site we spend our hour plus out there and then by the time we're back to campus they're ready to hit their their class two hours later their next class in their schedule so my point is there's been a lot of work with nineteen year olds from all parts of Washington that have no real interest in science certainly not any interest in geology and one of the main things we do on those field trips whether it's up on Manoj Tesh Ridge we're down in the Yakima River Canyon or out towards Thorp with the volcanic mudflows or at the base of Craig's Hill it doesn't matter what the topic is our main goal for those students is when we're in the field we separate data from interpretation that is crucial and it doesn't come naturally to people like we want to be real disciplined in our work when we're out there during that short little one-hour field trip when we're actually at the site and we say okay our first 15 minutes is nothing but observations just think like a second grader just observe things with your eyes write things down you know those some props and they've got to fill out a little chart or whatever or they have to sketch a little outcrop of something but the point is those first 10 15 minutes of their hour when they're at the field site is dedicated solely to writing down measuring or breaking rocks open carefully studying what's inside and that is totally separate from the storytelling data observations interpretation or ideas on what we can dream up creatively to explain the data but we have to make sure that our ideas fit the data and this is a theme you've heard if you if you're irregular with me you've heard that regularly I can't emphasize that enough and so I mentioned this pretty carefully this morning because the fun part of this discussion will be coming up with ideas to explain these mounds but we're not going to start with the ideas and that's my other part of this preamble I won't do too much on this but I feel like I want to say it when that 19 year old jumps out of the van and they're excited and they're actually into it now there's surprise but looks like week four and they're ready to go and as soon as they're getting out of the van they're surveying the scene they're looking at a couple things and in about 3.5 seconds they go all lava flow with a big flood that made this Canyon in other words I don't know maybe they're just screwing with me but they jump right to the interpretation and the fact that they actually vocalize it we got our group of 20 students and you know they're kind of a loudmouth and they're just going oh yeah yeah listen this and this and quite often they're not screwing with me they're genuinely excited and they can see the story within less than a minute of being out there and that's dangerous for this particular reason they have attached themselves to their story like that's the first thing they did boom lava flows and a flood and then for the rest of the time we're out there this guy lists but it's typically men do this by the way so this guy is like constantly like defensive now like if somebody's talking about something that's not a lava flow he's like well my idea was the lavas and you graft on to this idea and you don't let go I think that's human nature and so suddenly the people let's call him Tyler Tyler's in this story now suddenly and Tyler's you know defending to the death his idea of the lava and the and the flood even though we're all trying to just collect our data first and then trying to come up with as many different possible ideas so I think you hear what I'm saying even in geology conferences or professional geology field trips feels like people are putting themselves into it too much and they're not really being objective because they've already kind of figured it out and they're blind to anything else so I don't know maybe you've already left a comment on you know about the mime amount and you have the answer and you've got your idea so you've already kind of done what Tyler does when he's jumping out of the van all I'm asking is that we have a scientific discussion and all I mean by that is that we separate our data from our interpretation okay and last thing to say nobody knows the interpretation people been looking at these mounds for 150 years easily and nobody's figured it out so if you're you know if you're in the UK and you got your popcorn a little bit or whatever and you're ready to kind of wait and wait and wait and then you get the payoff in the end it's not coming nobody's been convincing with the right kind of data or nobody's come up with the best explanation the best interpretation to fit all of the data that we have okay I got to say one more thing I proud I know you want to get wrong but I gotta say one more thing it's common for those that don't latch on to one eye so the anti Tyler's and they're weighing all these different ideas and then when the field trips done it's common for geologists or whoever to say well you know it's probably just a combination of factors you know the earth is complicated and it's probably a combination and that always feels wrong to me first of all it's just probably not an equal combination of tons of factors there's got to be one driving factor to explain these things we're about to talk about but the other part of it is back to the human nature part you know you watch a movie and it's it's a it's a murder mystery and and they start the movie with this there's the dead body there's the dead guy in the floor of the pantry he's dead and there's a big old hole in his chest you know obviously a bullet went into his chest the guy's dead bullet hole in his chest and then you're you know okay I wonder if we can figure out who did who's the killer and you know how oh that oh yeah Butler aha yeah the the babysitter and by the end of the movie after all the evidence and all the the detective work has been done what is the detective say look into the camera go well it's a combination of things you know what he did how he ate a lot of potato chips and had a lot of stress at that law firm so kind of a combination of things that that killed him like how about the hole in the in the chest how about the gun so ten minutes of that wasn't planning on that here we go data mama mounds interpretation a bunch of ideas okay let's say you're in Scotland you're in Switzerland you're in Japan you're like I have no idea what we're talking about well here's what the mounds look like and you're like isn't that some sort of computer image yeah it is they really look like that yeah they do here's a beautiful image from the Washington Geological Survey beautiful lidar imagery and art Daniel Cole I've talked about him on past live streams so this is a real image of a place called Thurston County and it's a prairie I mean that looks like goose bumps on your arm or that looks like the skin of a pig skin I spent 20 minutes looking for a football this morning I couldn't find it okay so we're going here to the my mum mounds and we're really talking about these mouths that look like that let's keep going with data I'm trying to keep all the ideas and the interpretations away for a while oh you want a real photo from a drone okay we can do that so obviously people are interested like what is the story and for a few years I've tried to get our producers of the PBS show to do a mime amount show because people always ask about them and they're like I don't know what what could I you know all I have to show is this like the videographers like I I need a variety of things I need kind of you know grand scenery in this what am I gonna do I'm going to show this for five minutes and and when you go to the Miami mountains area the park I'll just call it the park they even have a little visitor center that's shaped like a mile amount that cute so you look at some kiosks in here you can go up the staircase and kind of get up at least a little bit and see a number of these these mounds we're still just getting introduced especially if you've never been to these mime amounts and I'm still so far just at this star but we'll be going elsewhere in just a bit these magma mounds are not just at that star but here's in Bates McGee's wonderful old classic textbook page 303 this is from 1970 and beautiful aerial shot before drones so I guess this is from an airplane or something hot-air balloon okay that's our topic that's what my mom on czar you're like well I don't live in western Washington maybe the mountains that I have here are what this guy's talking about this morning so we call the Miami mounds here in the Pacific Northwest in California apparently they're commonly called hog wallows or maybe you've got prairie mounds or pimple mounds or silt mounds as far as I can tell those are all kind of the same topic this morning so if you'd rather have this be a prairie mound talk than four by all means okay so I'm hesitating because I want to make sure we don't mix up our data from our interpretation has anybody dug into these mounds to look at their compositional makeup yes and unfortunately Charles Wilkes came through in the 1840s and he's like I think these are burial mounds let's get them let's cut them open see what's inside like that's offensive on so many levels but it was a different time so they weren't burial mounds he dug into three and since then people have used ground penetrating radar and other kinds of ways to look inside to excavate some of these mounds and there's no evidence of humans they're not burial mounds so he goes to the white board just once I think this morning and the Sun will continue to move I know I got this big shadow coming through here but that'll move on us yeah you can really see the shadow no so here's my attempt to give you a feeling for the dimension of these things and a couple other pieces of data now I think I need to say but right off the bat that what I've got on the white board is the best way to portray what the myma mounds look like on my map prairie southwest of Olympia but I feel like I need to say oh you know what I'll do if I can find it yeah the mime amounts or pimple or prairie or hog wallace or whatever here's a map that might cool your jets a little bit if you've got a favorite idea already if you're a Tyler so here's a map of the US the lower 48 states and the areas that have these mounds so this is still data but in addition to Miami Eastern Washington I mean this is out in the channeled scablands the Great Valley of California San Diego area and even the Lower Mississippi Valley now I'm from Wisconsin we have burial mounds there truly burial mounds Juli archeological but and I'm jumping to interpretation just a bit but I I shouldn't do that sorry so so here's the areas that have been carefully mapped where we have these repetitive mounds okay so I'm showing you the data from here and I've got some slightly different data from the channeled scablands of Eastern Washington but I admit right now I don't know much about how the mounds might be different in these other areas and you might if you're from those areas and you know quite a bit more about them just data wise maybe you can contribute a little bit to us or now that I think about it if you are on other continents and as we continue to kind of look at the data here and you think you've got some mounds that would be very fun I think for us to read about your mounds if you feel like they've got the right dimensions and some of the other things I'm about to share so this could be a fun benefit of a worldwide QA or a worldwide live chat situation where we can actually kind of learn from you because most of the literature I found is is is is Western North America specific although I have heard that there are some mounds and Argentina like out of the pampas is that way can you call it pampas in South Africa apparently but I don't know what I'm talking about now so that'd be fun if you have visited or you live in a place on another continent that has some of these okay so back to this I'm not going to be bothered by that the shade I'd I am bothered but I'm gonna ignore it and hopefully you can to the shadow I mean so basically here's more data for you that on the Miami Prairie the mounds themselves average about four feet high and forty feet across now there's pretty wide variability here and you're like what Mars are five feet arch are three feet ours are 50 feet okay all right I got it but I just picked a nice average number for height and width to give you a feeling and the shape is quite usually about this shape in western Washington there is almost always they kind of gravel and cobble substrate so it's not bedrock it's a bunch of it's hundreds tens of feet at least maybe hundreds of feet of of coarse gravel and River cobbles trying to stay away from interpretation that's coming but the mountains are not typically made out of those River cobbles or gravels they're typically in western Washington made out of fine sand or silt and I'm going to show you a picture right now to show that these mounds have a very dark when you cut one open since we know they're not burial mounds when you cut them open there's a real dark black compared to the the color here so I couldn't show that on my whiteboard but this is basically black versus light tan let's look at that right away before I forget here's another book to put in your library I forget if I've already plugged this one but Dave Tucker is a wonderful fellow he's been in Bellingham most of his life he's taught occasionally at the university Western Washington University but he's had a blog for years and does public field trips public lectures and knows a lot about Western Washington in particular and I know I did show you this before because I showed you what I think is an amazing front back cover illustration showing Rainier erupting and lahars coming down I think we should do a la Harz in western Washington show just had that thought right now but I think that might work so I mentioned Dave's book because he's got a full chapter I think he calls them vignettes but he's got a chapter vignette number six is enigma on the Prairie the mime amounts and it's well done I I was trying to cobble a bunch of stuff together last night on my own and then I got to Dave's chapter I'm like oh god it's all right here this is great so a good job to you Dave Paul Cain who was a Canadian landscape painter I think I talked about him briefly with st. Helens back in the 1840s Paul Cain was was travelling through he visited the my mum mounds in 1847 here's an interesting painting of the mounds but what I really wanted to show you I'm skipping over some wonderful cartoons that dave has about the ideas the interpretations which we'll get to in a second here Steven slaughter former student here at central in this poll in this photo so I like this photo for a number of reasons I'm really hoping to get it in focus now so here's Steven who's 6-2 and they didn't excavate this or maybe they did but there is this excavated myma mound that you can get to on the Prairie so you can see it's kind of jet black in the mound itself and if I can push my luck here on focus I really can't tell how I'm doing on focus but there are some cobbles in amongst the fine sand and silt in the dark stuff but then here's this kind of gravelly cobble II substrate but Dave I don't know if you can read his text here but Dave says look out look at these kind of what does he you can read it better than I I can't remember what you said four inches to a foot maybe it's like they're not roots but they look like these kind of little wedges that are going down into the cobble II substrate is that a is that an important clue as to how these mounds at least get started okay so I tried to show that just a little bit with my sketch cuz I was intrigued by that and maybe you are too so that's why I did these little guys kind of after the fact so at least that one mound on the mine the Prairie has not a perfectly sharp boundary but there's a little bit of these places where that kind of organic rich silty stuff is coming down so in between the mounds so there's another mound right over here right another mound that usually saw them spaced it's just gravel so silty mound no silt just gravel and then the next silty mound next healthy amount etc well guess who was visiting the my mum mounds in 1911 J Harlen Bretz so I mean these these live streams are turning into a love fest every time for either Tom Foster or J Harlen Bretz are both we will eventually get to a topic where we don't talk about Brett's like tomorrow I suppose I guess maybe I'll even throw it in tomorrow but for those that aren't aware J Harlen Bretz is a very important geology figure here and he did most of his fieldwork back in the 19-teens the 1920s I'm not sure I've shared this chronology with you but Brett's grew up in Michigan was a high school teacher in Michigan came out to Seattle to teach high school for a few years and he was visiting the my mum mounds with his high school students he had a hiking club kind of a Boy Scout group called the Peripatetic s-- and he took these boys these high school boys on weekend walks where they would literally go like 20 miles in a day and they're just walking all over the place you know you can't just jump in a car in 1908 for instance and then he went on to greater fame at the University of Chicago but from now those four years from those three or four years of high school teaching in Seattle Brett's was compiling all this wonderful field data from the Puget lowland and when he went to the University of Chicago his PhD dissertation was on the glacial deposits of Puget lowland I'm not saying the myma mounds are from glaciers right just sharing where Brett says observations come from so this is a wonderful publication if you can find it online I think you can there's a hard copy in our University Library 1913 J Harlen Bretz glaciation of the Puget Sound region and even though this was his PhD dissertation OB she is playing with the cozy fort hey don't do that playing with our black quilt look there he goes so anyway so here's a classic shot love this photo Brett's took out his little brownie or whatever the camera was in 1911 and here's some of his high-school students walking across the mile amounts on the Miami Prairie they were just putting in roads at the time so they're there putting a couple roads right through some of these Lima mounds are you getting impatient come on now we got to be disciplined you know that I'm a fan of Brett's for many reasons including how he uses good writing to describe his field observations you know lots of field data is just kind of borings like stats and that sort of thing but he had a flair for even describing his observations so I'm gonna hunt through some of his texts and share some of his observations of the myma mounds with you the mounds occur on the mounds occur on gravel mounds attained their best development on nearly plain gravel surfaces so he says the landscape needs to be very flat to form the best mounds does that mean that the gravel needs to be flat the landscape needs to be flat to get the best mounds steeply sloping areas are commonly mound 'less the mounts have a regularity of form that is remarkable in the hundreds of acres of the mound prairies there are but few exceptions to the general form of a spherical segment mounds in any one locality are nearly uniform in size there are nowhere large mounds scattered in an area of small mounds and these are basic observations but some of them you don't kind of think carefully enough to actually write down at least I don't there is almost invariably an accumulation of cobbles or pebbles on the surface among no Charlotte I'm sorry there's cobbles or pebbles on the surface among the mounds surrounding the mounds I read that incorrectly there's a hand-drawn view from the air threats must have done with a India ink he's finding some cobbles within the mounds themselves but mostly the mounds are made of finer grain stuff all prairies of the region bear is surficial black silt in the mounds the silt has accumulated to a thickness as great as the mound height and in places greater so that it forms a lens-shaped accumulation while between the mounds the silt is thin or not existence not non-existent the mounds are structureless that's an important observation there's no layering that you see inside of one of these myma mounds this is the batch of stuff okay for those that are impatient I'm about done with my observations just for fun here's the the geologic map of Puget lowland from Brett C's dissertation from 1913 so he's mapping where the Glacial the terminal moraine is the outwash Plains so we're grading now into our interpretation topic and we are very close good morning we are very close to the edge of the ice so you want to lean a little bit towards the fun part we're done with the boring part we're into the fun part and maybe you've now got your idea your favorite idea and I don't know have you done it already if you haven't done it already and you've already done some thinking about these minor mounds what's your favorite idea do I want to do that yeah why not it's time to be Tyler okay you you're different than Tyrell are already you've you've gotten a bunch of different field data not only the the distribution of these Miami mounds across the western US but oh I know I'm sorry I got one more piece of data I'm sorry one more piece of data the work we've done in the last 50 years or so was trying to get a date on these mounds what do we know what data do we have about the age of the mounds can we find some carbon material some organic material in the mounds can we get an age on some charcoal or some plant material or some volcanic ash and yes the answer is yes we've been able to get dateable material in the mounds or on top of the mounds or below the mounds even in the bay main messages there's lots of different dates but they're all younger than 10,000 years so these are mounds that are forming after the ice left so because of that because we have no Miami mounds where there's glacial till or where we're definitely underneath an Alpine or a continental glacier we've got to get rid of that no mounds where we have glacial till now the last piece of observation comes one more time Bruce Bjorn stad book two on the trail of the Ice Age floods the northern reaches page 83 it's best just to read this to you one of the most visible and curious features of the channeled scablands so channeled scablands are in eastern washington we're not on the chalkboard now we're out where the Missoula floods were happening are the regularly spaced hillocks called mime amounts so there's thousands of mime amounts in Eastern Washington and in Eastern Oregon I might add but but Bruce is Bruce and Jean are talking about Eastern Washington the circular Meisel like bumps range up to several tens of feet wide and several feet high with in the channeled scablands of Eastern Washington they generally form where there is a thin cover of loose rubble and windblown silt this is the lists silt now the kitchen flour overlying flat lying rocky basalt bedrock ok let me put that at home so this is from a science paper on the mounds and here's more data now so we were looking that the whiteboard that I drew for you is here in western Washington there's our mounds on top of a gravelly substrate Bruce is now describing my mounds in eastern Washington that are sitting directly on top of the German chocolate cake there is no gravelly substrate generally and apparently in California they've got kind of a clay hard pan beneath the my mounds and I can't hold it there are my mum mounds on top of Minhaj cash-rich I'm pointing to them right now so there are beautiful my mum mounds up she Anika Oregon that's a famous favorite place of mine or on top of Menashe cache ridge where we're a thousand feet the valley floor a thousand feet above the valley floors and we are on some steep slopes and the mounds are not perfectly spherical but they kind of have a lopsided look and on lidar those mounds kind of look like teardrops coming down a steep desert Ridge ok back to Bruce I think it's really important to go through this this factual information these observations do you agree I hope so because if we have our storytelling in our I think it's this I think it's that it's not based on anything except your emotions we don't need that we don't need your emotions this morning the my mom owns in eastern Washington are composed mostly of silt the mounds can also occur atop flood bars underline with thick piles of coarse gravel and sand so there's kind of truly silt mounds and by the way up on Menashe - they're mostly silt mounds so therefore the the vegetation is different there's there's beautiful flowers and grasses on the silt mounds but then surrounding it there's kind of a rocky apron surrounding almost like it looks like somebody put some of them are like perfect like masonry bricks going around but it's totally natural so out in eastern Washington we have silt mounds and then we also have mounds that occur atop flood bars under Lane with thick piles of coarse gravel and sand I just said that however they are most abundant upon the flood swept basalt plateaus and coolies of the channeled scablands in contrast they are rarely observed in the list covered Palouse hills no my mum mounds where we have the rolling hills of kitchen flour in fact these Miami mounds are best preserved in high-energy flood swept areas indicating that developed since the last Missoula floods around 15,000 years ago had the mounds developed before the last floods they would have been wiped out by the flood erosion or severely molded and streamlined by flood water which is definitely not the case one more paragraph and then we're going to the ideas I find this fascinating and I haven't seen this anywhere else recent investigations by archaeologists discovered in a Native American campfire hearth beneath a myma mound in the vicinity of esker ranch several radiocarbon dates of the hearth indicate that it was used as recently as five hundred years ago the oldest radiocarbon date is 1710 years ago because the mounds lie above the campfire hearth the Mount has to be younger than the campfire hearth and thus suggests that some myma mounds may only be a few hundred years old if this is the case wind one of the few active geologic processes still affecting the allons may play a major role in development of my mounds via trapping windblown silt like the loose on top of the st. Helens ash we did on our field trip on Thursday night trapping of windblown silt loose by vegetation mounds may initiate as loose cloaca we're into an interpretation now okay so there's dates ranging from ten thousand years old for the mounds down to apparently possibly just a few hundred years old okay so it's nine thirty eight it's almost like I'm strategically stalling so we don't have to do Question and Answer cuz I gotta say I'm gonna give you all I got I I don't I don't know if I can answer any questions we'll try it but I mean you're gonna be asking a bunch of stuff unless sounds like a good idea don't know don't know don't know so we're finally to the part that you've probably been waiting for I haven't been stalling so let's do this in dramatic fashion first of all let's find the sheath all right so I wrote out I mean there's there's truly dozens of different ideas for why the myma found mounds exist and if you're a combination of many different ideas that's fine but you know I want to look I want the gun I want I want I want the gun so originally the thought was burial mounds and then we dug into some of the burial mounds I've already commented on that no evidence of human burials okay are these mounds a depositional story where you have something growing and things that are growing are just kind of naturally spaced apart from each other and then when you have a bunch of loose or windblown stuff I guess you can bring stuff in by water it does the does that vegetation whether they're grasses or trees even do they act as an anchor then to allow all this stuff to kind of pile up in this conical form surrounding the vegetation which reminds me I got to go back to Bret's so the publication is 1913 so Brett's is talking to a farmer who has farmed at the mime of prairie his whole life one fart this is Bret's writing one farmer who lived on my MA Prairie for many many years is convinced that the mounds which bear clumps of the stunted oak common to the gravelly soil are increasing in height the farmer stated that in leveling the mounds for a roadway the horses plunged knee-deep repeatedly in the gravel and silt after the soldered surface of the mounds had been broken inferring from this that the mounds are Hollow and they're hollow because there used to be tree roots that has since decayed so the farmer using some logic thought that every mound was where there used to be a big oak tree and the tree is gone and the root ball has decayed away and so the mounds are hollow we know now that they're not hollow but the idea that that we're concentrating these silty mounds especially in places that we have vegetation kind of anchoring things and not letting the wind have that stuff get blown away so that's an approach to say that the mounds are depositional anchored by the vegetation kind of similar to that but different the thought is maybe the mounds where we have all the mounds so sediment trap the idea is is it possible that every one of the mounds used to be the opposite like originally where we have mounds we had depressions like wet little sinkhole type things but they were wet and so sediment coming into the area we're kind of naturally being filled by the sediment and then once we start those those depressions get filled with sediment then the sediment just gets piled higher and higher it's a preferential place to drop sediment so it's kind of a weird thing where the mounds were originally the places where we had depressions sediment traps in other words I got a few more and we got to your favorite yet Frost polygons so you know it's it's interesting to read these papers because each new generation of geologists you know you got a young gun hole peoples like oh they haven't figured it out I'll go out and figure it out this can't be that hard and and through the years then there's kind of pit kind of it's almost like fashion you know there's a certain kind of idea out there that's everybody's talking about back in the 50s and 60s it was freeze and thaw what we call periglacial meaning we're close to a glacier we're not under the ice but we're next door to where a big glacier was and we have some sort of repetitive freezing and thawing like cracks in the permafrost up in the Arctic for instance and that this is just kind of forming mounds because we keep doing this cracking and freezing and thawing and freezing and thawing a proponent of that at least early on was Marty Katz who was my neighbor for a long time Marty it was a longtime geography professor here at Central started in 1952 and we're still actively going to his office and participating in talks and going to many of our talks well into his 90s so truly my next-door neighbor right right behind the shed and if you're looking to read about Marty's work Martin Katz ka ATZ ka ATZ Martin he called the Menashe - mounds so he was focused primarily on our my mounds that were not in western Washington but just to the south of Ellensburg and if you zoom around on on Google Maps or Google Earth especially Menashe - just north of um tandem Creek you'll find these amazing my mum mounds and I don't think I have enough time I was thinking about doing it zooming around on Google Maps with you but go to Shanna Koh Shanna COEs classic little kind of ghost town any kind of a place in eastern Oregon's right on us 97 if you know the drive us 97 betweens Biggs Junction and Madras you know Shanna Koh and I don't know how many times have been on field trips with my students and they're all next time we stopped for a restroom they like what we're all those mounds back there by Shanna cows like my mom ounce so you can go there and just see all these amazing amazing mounds that again have these vegetation differences what was I doing oh yeah frost polygon so we're back to Dave Tucker's book which is a really excellent source for this discussion including a couple of homemade illustrations that he made that I think are wonderful [Music] so he's saying if you go up to the Arctic you see these cracks I'm really blind here right now I can't tell you about the focus awoke for the best so in a periglacial setting you're constantly cracking freezing thawing freezing thawing and getting those patterns and so the frost polygons idea to explain the mounds is that you do enough of this freezing and thawing to develop sediment that's separated from its neighbor and then a picture's worth a thousand words so you can kind of see eventually you melt the frost you get the polygon set up and the mime amounts are a result now we do in that Louisiana I don't know maybe we are that's always the discussion right you you kind of hear an idea and then you go okay but how about San Diego okay well how about Olympia okay how about let's keep going we do want to get to the Q&A even though I'm kind of half afraid of it this morning how many more I got on my list I got three more in my list so far we got these and you're gonna be pissed if your idea isn't done the list but oh well well early to be pissed isn't it Oh what never heard of that one you say son cups who came up with that brats again Dave Tucker's book another homemade Dave talked about how much time you spent with his computer trying to figure out how to make all his animate holla his illustrations time well-spent Dave here's Brett TSA's idea though Brett's wasn't totally in love with it but it was a novel idea the son Cup idea for my mum mouths you have some snow or ice I guess you melt the top of the snow or ice you naturally form these cups somehow there's a bunch of sediment I guess it's lust that gets blowing into the cups the snow or ice melts and you're left with the mounds so it's kind of similar to the sediment trap idea that you're actually trapping sediment when you have a divot and then where the divot was is now an actual Mound hope that makes some sense to you I before we leave Brett's and the idea of snow and ice I need another waterlogged piece of paper here so from Brett's as work primarily here's just the location I'm right into the Sun now so I can't even I can only see like a reflection off the phone so I really am kind of blind at the moment hopefully this is working for you so here are the my mum mounds in the red circle here's the maximum extent of the continental glacier over Seattle that got down into 900 places like that there was a glacial lake Carbon apparently I don't know anything about it there was some draining of the glacial lake kind of a smaller version of the Missoula floods but just water draining out the Chehalis to the Pacific Ocean and so those gravels are for sure at least on the Miami Mount area the myma prairies and the other prairies of this area the gravels are definitely glacial outwash and we got the mounds not where the ice was but next order where the ice was we can go back and forth on each of these ideas I mean there's no there was never any glaciers on top of Menashe - Ridge or Shanna Coe there was never any ice right next door to many of the bimah mounds in eastern Washington you can start hopefully seeing why we don't have an answer we don't have a winner we got two more in the list I want to tell you my favorite but I guess I'm not going to wait for it wait for it now you know I'm a geologist I know anything about biology that's my wife's game what'd you talk to a lot of biologists and it's an open-and-shut case obviously these are pocket gophers I'm like really oh yeah and one of the maps that I found last night shows the distribution of the mime amounts and the range of different species if you call it that of pocket gophers this is another one that got soaked in the water bucket but hopefully you can read it I don't have a source for this sorry just cause is googling like crazy last night going to YouTube finding all sorts of mime amount videos so there's a relationship here between the dark areas and well can you even see them so the dark areas are the mime amount areas and then all these colors are different kinds of pocket gophers and the idea that these Gophers make this mounds of the fact that they're all trying to I think they're digging up wet soil and trying to get some dry soil so they're all all the mounds there where you kick the soil out of the wet muck and you create these nice kind of fluffy mounds to then live in or I don't know anything about biology but it's not a joke there's many biologists plenty of geologists who say this is a pocket gopher story all right last one on my list maybe not on yours we continue to learn more and more about earthquakes in western North America we've made tremendous leap forward in discovering earthquake faults and getting a sense of the magnitudes of prehistoric earthquakes and the basic message is with each decade we have more and more sobering news about earthquake activity in western North America is it possible that you take a bunch of sediment and you shake the crust and you shape the crust and you shake the crust and you shake the Kristen is it possible for that sediment to naturally dance into these mounds does that sound crazy to you are there really earthquakes in the Mississippi Valley actually there are are they really earthquakes in California actually there are the really earthquakes in the Pacific actually there are so that's what this paper is all about formation of my mounds a seismic hypothesis this came out in 1990 so you know how this works if you want clicks on YouTube or whatever or on the internet in general you you title your little thing i'ma mound mystery solved you know and there's tons of those little traps you know and then you click on it's like what they don't huh so there's a lot of that sort of thing okay Bijou is hungry wants to get inside we're going to cozy for it I got a few things for you and then we'll go to your Q&A come on BJ let's go and that reminds me of inman's bakery and a t-shirt for me and a t-shirt for Liz we're left outside the house last night from Jeff from binman bakery so thank you for the gift Jeff didn't drop off danishes but dropped off a vindens bakery t-shirt to excel fits and there is hope jeff is watching this morning and i jeff i hope you can add a link to how to support i'll show people with the laptop but I couldn't find an obvious link so I'll give you more about the t-shirts and how you'd be supporting a good cause in this town beyond just ven-ven's bakery but before we do that let's go to some other clips involving my mum ounds cosy fort I think half of these shows are getting longer just because I'm less I'm more willing to just take Val take your valuable time by doing stuff like this but your comments are are so kind and it doesn't seem like you're bothered by a bunch of this stuff you know nobody's saying these are way too long and I enjoy making them so I guess we'll do what we want woo woman's Baker you gotta love it cozy for you gotta love it alright so I'd never really just kind of gone to YouTube and search for mime amounts I had no idea there'd be so many and most of them were not that impressive to be honest with you that's my point of view but I did find a few that I liked and I thought were a valuable contribution to what we're doing we'll start with San Diego California 2-minutes discovered the secret behind one of the country's biggest geological mysteries that can be seen right here in San Diego County 10 News reporter Michael Chen reveals the creature believed to be behind the creations and the San Diego study that led to the conclusion from Puget Sound to San Diego the sight of them is strange and unexplained dirt mounds known as Mima mounds rising as high as 8 feet tall and 30 feet wide the mound I'm standing on top of is about 3 feet tall for thousands of years Mima mounds used to stretch across the mesas of San Diego County including much of Kearny Mesa and Oh Thomas theories for the mounds range from earthquakes to floods to aliens I would definitely say it's an enduring mystery a mystery one San Jose researcher believes he has solved a geologist Pat avid is not that researcher but he brought us to some Mima mounds in the Miramar area almost all of the local mounds and nearby vernal pools have disappeared because of development here we see some of the burrows could these burrows be home to the true architect of the mounds the pocket gopher the Gopher theory is based on the work of former SDSU professor George Cox who studied Gophers living under local mounds and used coloured pellets to track dirt movements he found that Gophers move dirt uphill when the ground underneath got wet and over you know decades and centuries that gradually builds as well using Cox's research and computer modeling the San Jose researchers showed the creation of the mounds over thousand year period but that doesn't tell you did they build the mound to begin with or did they simply occupy a mound and then modify it other scientists have questioned whether a simulation is definitive proof Cox says it is the best explanation for a site that has for so long been heaped in mystery Michael Chen multiple causes there you go that wasn't as loud as it could I just hit the volume sorry about that the others will be louder this is a nice little one minute or so of drone work done just last November that I enjoyed [Music] there's that visitor center that little white thing that's a nice shot I could use more of that shot personally all right couple more for you by the way I've heard from a lot of you about how I can improve my professionalism with the audiovisual and I can go on to some thank you but kind of half the fun is just doing a cosy fort like this so I know it's not perfect but I prefer that kind of approach so I know that there's other ways to do this but I choose to do it this way hope you understand all right now this is let me read the description sound monolith resonance patterns water from Andrew Roberts so this is we're into physics and math now but this is basically analogous to shaking a substrate basically thinking about earthquakes now and if we have a kind of a remember the electronics electric football you're old enough to remember plastic guys and put the little felt football and under their arm and then turn the I should get one of those I should find Electric football set from 1968 boy we played that for hours but that's kind of this vibrating table and having all these those players that dance around and then fall that would be totally great why didn't I think about that earlier all right anyway this is not electric football but this is something different I have no idea what I'm looking at I forget if I bookmarked it but there's a video that Scott Burns was involved with Scott Burns is an excellent geologist down in Portland and he's done a fair amount on different mediums oh I didn't bookmark it so you can also get the effect by having a kind of plywood with a bunch of sand on it and then you tap hit it with a hammer I thought about trying something like that and ran out of time but you get the same kind of dancing of the sand into those mounds that are regularly spaced apart from each other ah yeah I think that's okay so this is a plug to go along with my t-shirt here from ven-ven's bakery I don't know if this is happening nationwide but at least here in Ellensburg there is a t-shirt shop called shirt Works run by Dan Rosso used to be a neighbor and he can you see this so he's basically selling t-shirts for $20 each and $10 of each of the t-shirts goes to support local businesses here in Ellensburg so I know you mostly don't live in Ellensburg so maybe you're not interested but if you wanted to get a Vinh men's t-shirt it's here so that's what I'm modeling and Liz's fits well as well comes in evergreen and maybe comes in Evergreen okay but maybe there are similar this is called here for good and so half the proceeds go to keeping our local business here in Ellensburg afloat and I have to assume that there's similar things like this going on in many communities around the world but maybe Jeff Glen worth in the comments has a way to get you to this site because I tried to just Google here from here for good and it went someplace else even googling here for good Ellensburg till didn't get to this page Jeff so anyway that'd be a way for you to contribute locally here or if not here then of course anyplace else that's the end of what I had planned for for you this morning hope it was somewhere close to what you wanted to do and at least got you curious about these mounds if you're unaware of them to this point it's time for some Q&A I'll try my best it's already ten six minutes after ten so I'm thinking ten minutes or so of this let's find you here and I certainly won't to have answers for you but at least try to respond to some of your thoughts do mounds continue into the adjacent forest Thank You Todd I think they do there's lidar now you know there's this ability to basically remove trees digitally and see these surfaces continuing beneath all the vegetation the subdivisions and everything else I possibly even Dan COEs imagery the one that looked like details of a football skin perhaps that's already removing a bunch of the trees you mentioned permafrost as the part of permafrost melts are my mum mound structures apparent oh like up if you go to the Arctic Bill and you actually study the permafrost are you seeing my mum mound structures like that good question I don't know I don't know any examples of boulders eroding into rubble piles faster than granite boulders boulders you roading into rubble piles well it is true that you can have something like a big coarse grained granite like saying this year in Nevada mountains like I used to teach that field course down in the Owens Valley of California for 20 years with our central students and one of our mapping exercises was these beautiful granite boulders that were round and it looked like they had been moved but they were truly just granite in place and then because the crystals were so big they they were weathering out and you just had this what we call gross gr us just this coarse grain junk laying at the bottom so that is the thing but I don't see how it relates here because there's no boulders anywhere and all that all the mounds truly just completely disintegrated boulders Patrick 8:6 are the mounds something that formed and now that are here or are they still growing and changing are there areas geologists are studying where they're changing Patrick you always have good questions especially the silt mounds out in eastern Washington where there's less being blown around even to this day if you were with this Patrick and our last live stream we walked up to the top of the hill past the teenagers and we found a thin layer of Mount st. Helens ash with 12 inches of Loess on top of 1980 and so clearly the list is still being blown around so that I think assume we can we can deduct from that Patrick that possibly the my mounds at least in Eastern Washington are still receiving silt but this is still happening slowly enough that there's no way to track their movement to my knowledge how did the mounds form was it caused by water or something else water would have wiped out the mounds what caused the mounds to form and have they been shrinking over the years oh this is from Daniel age 12 well I tried to give different ideas of how the mounds formed Daniel and nobody knows the answer maybe you like certain ideas better than others I think many of the ideas are either based around the mounds are from sediment piling up or the mounds are the only things that are left and everything between the mound has been taken away by water and then we get into this physics of dancing sand etc is the subject hang on hang on hang on is the substrate similar on Menashe Tesh mounts out washed there's no glacial outwash on man - - ridge it's similar to Eastern Washington where there's exposed basalt bedrock and a little bit and it'll basically list so it's identical now that I think about it so the Hren every Ice Age floods up on top of Menashe - Ridge there were never any glaciers on top of Menashe - Ridge no evidence for either of those so basalt bedrock silt that got blown in on the winds and yet those mounds are all over the place and again kind of instead of our normal mounds that are just kind of equally spaced many of those slopes on the especially the south face of Menashe - if you look at light our imagery of Menashe - or even just Google Maps if you get the right view you can see those mounds just it's amazing how they look like teardrops going down these ridges towards I'm tannin Creek I don't understand them Evelyn's aged seven are the mounds always in open areas where the wind could swirl from lots of directions generally yes Evelyn that myma Prairie is an open prairie but I think the mounds continue into the forest I guess I'm not sure of that so maybe you do need an open area excellent question convergent geology different places different causes similar appearance I guess Jack is saying combination of factors but this but the pet the appearance is similar the dimensions I showed you I mean do you have mountains in your area do they have these kinds of dimensions and are they regularly spaced again I'm going to be very anxious to read the comments to see if I can learn about some new places on other continents and to see if this is truly a global phenomenon it must be but is it tied to latitude is it tie is this logic you know is weather climate all sorts of things is there evidence that the mounds were pushed up from below through those roots like a sand boil no evidence that they have moved up or down or laterally based on the evidence that I shared with you still need mineral composition of dark stuff inside Mound I'm sure that's been done Colin a mineral analysis of the dark stuff inside the mounds on the west side now remember they're not dark mounds over here in eastern Washington it's kind of the lighter tan kitchen flower like in the Palouse but over there in western Washington I guess I didn't read carefully enough but I'm sure if you look into it you'll find a detailed chemical analysis of the minerals in the dark stuff low frequency seismic events causing silt to rise to the surface through liquefaction so Peters wondering about the earthquake story and are we causing the silt to rise to the surface as we look at liquify the sediments that is a process with seismic shaking you you you take certain areas that are kind of wet sediment and you you have it moved kind of as a slurry although I don't know I should stop talking I don't really know much about liquefaction I think that's the idea though Peter and even though it's dry it's of course it's much drier here in eastern Washington do we really have quakes in eastern Washington yes do we really have magnitudes and regional earthquakes big enough to have the silt be dancing out by Spokane in the Cheney Palouse tract up at Janek oh I think it's possible what's my favorite hypothesis I'm a geologist I like the earthquake idea but you know that I'm not an expert in this and I've learned just as much as you have I mean I've been on some field trips and Carl Lilliquist is a former student of Marty Katz and so there's a learned a lot about the mime amounts from Carl and Marty but beyond that I'm approaching pretty much just like many of you are Cretaceous see earthquakes Cretaceous e to old susan earthquakes I like the idea of the earthquakes Frost mounds question mark says Nikki well that's one of the ideas that these mounds are from cracking and moving things laterally because of the freezing and thawing especially if your next door to a glacier but remember our newest techniques have given us ages that are far younger than when the ice was actually here and I think too Marty kaan pointing now to Marty's house Marty passed away 10 years ago maybe excellent scientist to his credit I think he published more than once on the Mont on the Menashe - mounds and he changed his tune about the freezing and thawing because of the new dates that we had saying that many of the mounds were seven thousand years old five thousand years old and according to Bruce's book maybe even less than a thousand years old so he got away from the freezing and thawing just because we've had warmer climate lately meaning the last few centuries or millennia our Sun cups kind of the opposite of kettles let's see kettles are commonly thought about where you have a glacier a big ice sheet and you and the glaciers melting back and you strand a big block of ice in the glacial till and then when the iceberg finally melts you're left with the kettle or an actual kettle lake yeah in that sense I guess they are opposite because you're you're collecting sediment in a depression as opposed to making a depression because the ice was there mark says Mel waters made holes and mouths thank you mark are there my mounds and Idaho at craters of the moon fell for it how does the composition different from region to region I don't know Susan in Washington I can say that there's coarser material in western Washington and darker soils if you want to call it that Eastern Washington they're mostly silt mounds with again I'm an ash - I I wish I was trying to find a picture I couldn't from one of our field trips but there's these big rocks I don't know Coble sized rocks but they're angular and they're made they make these beautiful borders he's looking oh my god who who put these rock borders around but there's so many of those rock borders around some of those mounds that can't be people all right doesn't seem likely that it's people but comparing that to California's Miami mounds or Louisiana or some of those other places I don't I don't know Lorraine thank you for the question I don't have the mineralogy the black silt so many of you are asking about the composition of the mounds I maybe should have tried to read more on that Gophers are there any skeletal remains any evidence of Gophers not to my knowledge I don't know about burrows and skeletons and poop and other stuff that associated with the typical gopher community but as I understand it that's the main argument against Gophers there's not physical evidence of Gophers living inside of the mounds to my knowledge but to be honest you know there's full you know 60 page reports on Gophers making the my mounds and I lose interest after a you know I can't stay awake reading that stuff arctic mounds are called pingos thank you Brian could answer termites build these mounds can't rule anything out but why would they be so equally-spaced where permafrost have developed as far south as Louisiana right that's the each of these arguments has problems that's why we don't have the answer and it's quite difficult to visualize permafrost especially mounds being formed let's say less than five thousand years old why would you have permafrost in Louisiana Dale cornerstone pizza are there layers of volcanic ash found in any mounds not to my knowledge Michael that would help wouldn't it that would give us some age horizons but remember at least from the mine the mountains in western Washington Bret says there's no stratification there's no layering there's no grand canyon like here's the story of how first we had silt and then it changed to sand and then none of that it's just a batch it's almost like you I'm not saying this is what happened that's all you know what I was gonna say it's all so I could take a wheelbarrow you just dump a bunch of stuff in your wheelbarrow and there's no layering which remind I got to show this to you now have you seen this cartoon again Dave Tucker Dee Molenaar I've been meaning to read more about I guess it's him I don't even know if it's a him or her but this is a famous cartoon it's almost like the Gophers did that a cartoon by famed cartographer Dee mole in our illustrating how Gophers may have constructed the Miami mouths haha couple more and we'll quit our there's mounds on any other planets are on the moon not to my knowledge German chocolate cake where they formed his mounds or where they want to continue right so don't know about Warhawk people are arguing both ways it was a kid like do you have in case that wasn't clear in case I wasn't clear you can have a bunch of people talking about nothing was here and then these hills got developed by dropping sediment or it was a continuous layer of this silt let's call it and then it was removed in many places by water or wind and then I guess if you're an earthquake person you want the silt maybe half as thick as a continuous mantle and then we earthquake may be many many earthquakes over the course of thousands of years and you have the sediment dance and coalesce to make the individual Hills why no trees good question so most of your questions are about the composition of the black stuff and that's an interesting thing to me and I don't think I can easily just find a description I'm sure I can't in just a few minutes mike says Native Americans were mound builders but probably never on this scale but you might as well add them to the list well first of all Mike we can't be digging into things that are potential burial mounds today for absolutely incredibly sensitive and important reasons where I'm from in southern Wisconsin the burial mounds are actually shaped like animals or other creatures that are major parts of their story a stolen State Park near for I'm from Fort Atkinson the the mounds it's called the mounds country club there they built a golf course on a burial mound as I as I learned meet more and more Native Americans they get more and more upset thinking about this incredible whatever would so okay if you if you want to put burial moans on the list but there's there's no evidence of any human well last one what do we got to the mountain John to the mounds shrink and grow in relation to different seasons it'd be nice to know that there's no evidence of that and we've had many students and professors and state scientists etc visit these mounds at different times of the year and you would think that if there was some sort of seasonal change that would have been noticed by now okay I think that's that's most of them and I will be curious to look at the mineral composition of the black stuff in the mounds but I don't have it for you right now a toast to you and you're welcome to join us again tomorrow morning talking about earthquakes and deposits in Puget Sound indicating tsunami with some new field data that I've been able to learn from some experts that are friends of mine so I got more homework to do for tomorrow but it's breaking news involving tsunami deposits in Puget Sound which I'm excited to share with you here's Deven moons bakery located in downtown Ellensburg Washington you gotta love it here's to you dear viewer and your health your physical health your mental health your connectivity with your friends neighbors hopefully you have some sort of community that gives you strength here's to you I appreciate you joining us tonight I appreciate you joining us this morning hope that you have a pleasant Saturday and for those that are watching in other time zones good night from Ellensburg Washington USA I love you goodbye

Channel: Nick Zentner

Views: 20,076

Keywords: Nick From Home, Nick Zentner, mima mounds, Puget Lowland

Id: 7-0d-Go4iSw

Length: 97min 52sec (5872 seconds)

Published: Sat May 09 2020