During the early 1900s, its origins can be traced back to before America's entry into the Second World War. The B-36 earned itself the unofficial title of Peacemaker. By 1941, the United States Army Air Force had two effective heavy bombers in its arsenal. One was the renowned B-17, crafted by the Boeing company. This exceptional four-engine aircraft played a crucial role throughout the war, with later A slightly later addition to the fleet was the consolidated B-24 Liberator. Featuring an advanced tricycle undercarriage allowing for swifter landings, the Liberator served in all theaters of the war. Moreover, its larger, sturdier fuselage facilitated conversion into transport planes, rendering the B-24 one of the most adaptable aircraft in the American inventory. The Liberator, like the 17, was also heavily defended and it was also able to fly slightly higher than the fortresses. However, more significantly, it boasted extended range, making it frequently utilized for maritime patrol missions, covering then what were considered significant distances solely on internal fuel. Both the B-17 and the B-24 could only complete the journey from America to Europe one way. In 1941, the Army Air Force had also commissioned another bomber, envisioned to surpass its predecessors in altitude and distance capabilities. Another creation by Boeing, the B-29 Superfortress stood out as the most formidable bomber deployed throughout the entire conflict. Despite several hundred being ordered, not a single prototype had taken to the skies. As a secondary contingency plan, in the case of any setbacks with the B-29, the consolidated B-32 Dominator was proposed. While this aircraft wasn't produced in large quantities, it did offer a reassuring alternative to the Superfortress' remarkable capabilities. However, by 1941, it too existed only on blueprints. By the middle of that year, Nazi Germany had conquered continental Europe, achieving successive victories. Of greater importance, despite Britain's partial air superiority, it endured relentless bombardment from the Luftwaffe, causing significant devastation to both its populace and industry. These raids, often conducted at night but sometimes during daylight, were perceived by the German high command as means to subdue the island nation. The pressing question that American tacticians grappled with was simple. What would occur if the US entered the conflict and the sole remaining allied base in Europe fell to Germany? One option American strategists explored was the development of an aircraft with such extraordinary range that it could take off from bases on the American East Coast, cross the entire Upon completion, this aircraft boasted a wingspan of 212 feet, surpassing the XB-15 in size. Nevertheless, the XB-19 represented a significant milestone in aviation standards, not just in terms of size, but also in innovation. It was the inaugural aircraft to feature a tractable tricycle undercarriage and was designed to incorporate power-operated guns and a turret. If it had entered production, it would have boasted a range exceeding 7,000 miles. Northrop and Consolidated. The Northrop design was notably unconventional. The premise behind it was that eliminating the drag effect of the fuselage and tailplane could significantly enhance range. Thus, Northrop embarked on designing an aircraft essentially compromising only a wing, a flying wing. Consequently, on October 25th, 1941, an order was placed for two XB-35 experimental bombers. The consolidated design was more conventional than its competitor in shape, but certainly not in size. Featuring an expansive wing area of just under 5,000 square feet, the B-36 necessitated no fewer than six engines positioned at the rear of the wing to propel its colossal 163-foot fuselage through the air. On November 25, 1941, an order was sanctioned for two aircraft, with the expectation that the first would be developed by mid-1944 at a fixed fee of approximately $800,000 each. However, the much needed bomber bases in Britain remained available to the Army Air Force, allowing the standard B-17 and B-24 heavy bombers to commence attacks on enemy targets from 1942 onward. Deployed in abundance, the Fortresses and Liberators exacted a devastating toll on the enemy. The demands of a Pacific theater, particularly after the seizure of the Mariana Islands in mid-1944, were capably met by Boeing's B-29, which provided the Air Force with the means to strike deep into Japan's heartland. Yet, it was a specific B-29 armed with a particular bomb that ultimately brought the Second World War to a close, marking the culmination of much military aircraft development. Two notable exceptions to this narrative were the experimental long-range bombers, ordered only two weeks before American involvement in the conflict, but never afforded sufficient priority until the war's conclusion, alongside the necessity to deploy a new weapon unforeseen in the wildest dreams of tacticians four years earlier. The inaugural Northrop B-35 was actually assembled in an open environment and finalized in June 1946. This crever design, which was the source of controversy for many years, was powered by four pusher engines and was intended to carry a crew of nine in the pressurized center section, for its shape barely allowed the word fuselage to be applied. Despite its innovative design, which featured flaparons on the end of each wing instead of a conventional tailplane, the radical new shape of the flying wing was never able to completely overcome stability issues. Nevertheless, the flying wing stands as one of the experimental hangar just six days after Japan surrendered. However, it wasn't until August 1946, nearly five years after it was ordered, that the Peacemaker was ready for flight. The prototype's single main wheels were an impressive 100 inches in diameter, making them the largest ever produced for an aircraft. However, this feature would later prove to be a significant weakness. The six pusher-type engines were designed with air intakes located on the forward section of the wings. However, this advanced concept for its time also encountered initial difficulties in cooling the engines and would necessitate later modifications. On August 8, 1946, the first XB-36, commanded by a Captain Beryl A. Erickson, taxied down the Fort Worth runway with a total crew of 9 and 8,000 gallons of fuel. At precisely 10 minutes past 1 in the morning, Erickson lifted Convair's colossal aerial masterpiece into the air for the first time. It was the largest plane ever to take flight. The flight lasted no more than 37 minutes, during which the undercarriage remained in the wheels down position as a safety precaution. Ericsson's crew on this occasion and many subsequent ones subjected the giant aircraft to rigorous testing, swiftly identifying the challenges inherent in its immense size. One of the most significant challenges was the vibration generated by the immense engines spaced out across the wide expanse of the wing. Cooling, particularly at high altitudes, presented another issue. It was evident that the numerous areas would require substantial attention. However, perhaps the most fundamental challenge was the sheer size of the wheel arrangement, which restricted the Convair bomber to runways at least 22 inches thick. Given that only three such runways existed anywhere in America, it was clear that a solution The solution emerged in what was deemed another breakthrough, combining four 56-inch wheels into a group under each wing. This arrangement spread the B36's tremendous weight over a much broader area, allowing the Peacemaker to utilize runways of half the previously required thickness. Early in the B-36's development, Convair recognized the potential of leveraging its enormous wings and tailplane for the transport version of the Peacemaker's commercial counterpart, the 99 was assembled at Convair's San Diego operation, but with wings and other common parts shipped across the nation from Fort Worth. Here at Lindenburg Field, the aircraft that had now earned the title of the world's largest was now poised to showcase the potential that would later inspire the development of mammoth transport and airplane concepts in decades to come. The XC-99 garnered significant attention from Pan Am, which seriously contemplated a civilian version for the West Coast to Hawaii route. The airline even secured options on three such aircraft. However, the anticipated post-war airline boom failed to materialize for many years. The XC-99 never entered civilian service. The Saul example produced remained in active duty with the Air Force until 1957, proving particularly invaluable during the Korean War, where it expedited essential payloads across the nation. Though this aircraft required modification with a new undercarriage system, once implemented, it proved remarkably versatile and had the capacity, if needed, to transport 400 fully equipped troops. However, it was ultimately ahead of its time. Despite the XC-99's intriguing potential, Convair's primary focus remained on the extra-long-range bomber concept. Throughout the late 1940s, Convair continued to refine and develop the B-36, underscoring its unparalleled ability to strike virtually any target worldwide and return to base in America. Long range would require many hours of physical endurance for the crew, and therefore inside the 36's massive fuselage, adequate provisions were made for sleeping quarters and a galley, complete with a two-burner stove. Adequate provisions were always ensured for the crew aboard the B-36. However, the center pressurized section, housing these amenities, was located a considerable 80 feet away from the forward control area, accessible only via a narrow tunnel spanning the distance. Heated food was packaged in specially designed containers for transport between the extensive distances of the two pressurized sections. Additionally, the tunnel served as the sole means for personnel to move between crew sections. Given the distances involved, a small trolley was provided to facilitate efficient movement for each member. The size of the B-36 also necessitated unique procedures not previously required by other aircraft. Immediately after takeoff and before pressurization, a crew member was tasked with examining certain vulnerable areas within the massive interior structure forming the fuselage of the B-36. Only then would the plane be permitted to climb to higher altitudes and proceed with its mission. Numerous other challenges stemming from the sheer size of the B-36 also surfaced. There was a pressing question regarding how to service each of the massive aircraft, which was so large that special outdoor hangars had to be constructed to provide access to only the essential parts. Despite successful resolutions to the problem of engine vibration and cooling, there were undoubtedly serious concerns about the viability of the B-36 compared to other alternatives. Foremost among these was the upgraded competitor, the flying wing, which had transitioned to an all-jet aircraft by replacing its four propellers with eight turbojet engines. Northrop aimed to enhance the speed and viability of its innovative concept, utilizing unique flaperons at the wings end to compensate for the absence of a conventional tailplane. Another more conventional competitor to the B-36 emerged from the past, the Boeing B-50. Essentially a standard super fortress from the Second World War era, the B-50 featured more powerful engines and extended range due to the underwing mounted fuel tanks. This range was enhanced yet again by Boeing's successful development of aerial in-flight refueling. Thus, the Air Force had at its disposal a proven aircraft combination capable of flying the same range as the B-36, but without encountering the challenges of its immense size. By the late 1940s, due to these advancements, the future of the B-36 appeared increasingly bleak. Its salvation came through two significant developments. The first, poetically enough, was provided by Consolidated's long-term competitor. Boeing developed a successful medium-range bomber entirely powered by jets, leveraging captured German technology that demonstrated the advantages of a swept-back wing. The Boeing B-47 featured a wing not only swept but also remarkably flexible, capable of moving within an arc of 17 feet. To maintain a thin wing profile, the six engines had to be mounted in pods suspended from below. The outer pods each contained one engine, while the inboard pods each housed two engines suspended several feet below the wing surface. Engineers from both companies collaborated to attach this equipment to the outmost wing of Boeing's aircraft. With six turning and four burning, the B-36 finally began to transition into the jet age. The other event, which was sure to secure the future of the 36, took place on June 24, 1948, when the Soviets closed the gate on Berlin, signaling in one step the beginning of the Cold War. The escalating concerns about communism culminated in an event that jolted the West out of its post-war complacency, NATO forces suddenly found themselves facing a formidable adversary and the need for an intercontinental bomber swiftly transitioned from hypothetical to urgent reality. At this juncture, no aircraft in the world possessed the long-range capabilities of a convair giant. Rather than cancelling orders, demand for the peacemaker actually increased. As apprehension persisted, the significance of America's Strategic Air Command, responsible for long-range bombing, grew substantially. It was ultimately placed under the direct command of General Curtis LeMay. LeMay boasted an impeccable record from World War II, beginning with his early involvement in European bombardment with the Army Air Force and continuing through his command of Pacific operations in the B-29 bombardment of Japan. Regarded as one of America's great wartime strategists, he also oversaw the Berlin airlift. Given his extensive experience, LeMay was deemed the most qualified individual to elevate the Strategic Air Command, including its rapidly expanding fleet of B-36s, to the highest level of readiness. Under LeMay's unwavering leadership of SAC, the American public found reassurance in the knowledge that although they no longer held a monopoly on atomic weaponry, they possessed arguably the most formidable platform for delivery, the B-36. Such was the military's concern for safeguarding its intercontinental bomber that security measures were heightened to a wartime level. and SAC-controlled rooms were required to carry firearms despite being hundreds of miles within American borders. The protection of America's formidable asset necessitated even mechanics servicing the engines to carry firearms while at work. Exercises were conducted at an increasingly intense pace, around the clock and in all weather conditions, under LeMay's leadership. Give me 100% on the jet. Roger. Jet's coming up. Engineer, give me full power. Full power coming on. Jet's 100%. Stay apart. Tempo OK. Takeoff power is set. Everything's stabilized. Engineer, ready for takeoff. Roger. Carswell Tower, Air Force 653, ready for takeoff. Air Force 653, Carswell Tower, roger. Clear to roll. Roger, 653, rolling. a tower Roger 30 row. Right there six five three rolling here we go. of the jet. Often flying individually rather than in formation, SAC's peacemakers practice bombing raids over vast distances with minimal notice. The B-36s utilized the K-1 bombing navigation system for precision accuracy. This sophisticated system comprised 365 vacuum tubes, enabling the B-36 to conduct bombing runs at high speeds regardless of weather conditions. Targets typically consisted of radio signals emitted from special trucks designed to assess the accuracy of SAC's aircraft. Despite the hefty price tag of over 5 million US dollars per aircraft, coupled with the K-1 system and LeMay's insistence on relentless training, the combination ensured nothing short of exceptional accuracy. We've got the heading of 197. Bob, fly to air force 653. Over the I-3. Altitude 35,000. And an inbound heading of 197 degrees. Bomb flight air force 653, three zero seconds to go, the bomb's away. One five seconds to go, bomb flight, no switch coming on. Bomb's away. Despite the remarkable potential of the Convair Giant, critics often raised concerns about its large size, which could potentially make it a prime target for enemy fighters. Even before the first B-36 took flight, the Air Force ordered a unique auxiliary, the McDonnell Goblin, intended as a parasite fighter to be carried within the B-36. This extraordinary design was stripped down to the bare essentials and featured fold-down wings that allowed the aircraft to be fully concealed within the B-36's mom bay. While it was never actually deployed with the Peacemaker, its flight controls were operated from a B-29 mothership, and flight trials began in 1948. In August, with test pilot Ed Scorch secured in the cockpit, the Goblin was launched by a trapeze mechanism from the B-29, and the pilot successfully flew what must be considered one of America's most remarkable fighters. However, upon attempting to reconnect the Goblin's hook to the trapeze, turbulence caused the little fighter to lift, and the mother's plane mechanism broke the the canopy, wrenching the oxygen mask away from the pilot, but Scorch was just able to regain control and crash-land this tiny fighter. This setback did not stop development. The second and only other Goblin produced continued its assigned task. Eventually, on October 14, 1948, a successful hookup was achieved, and the Goblin was pulled up into the B-29's belly. However, despite the bolt concept, the bomber-fighter-parasite combination was never adopted, as it seemed to pose as many problems as it attempted to Nevertheless, a later parasite project involving the B-36 was the FICON concept. This program commenced in 1952 and entailed mating a Republic F-84 directly underneath a modified Peacemaker. Unlike the previous concept, there was no intention of fully enclosing the F-84 within the mother craft. Only after both aircraft were airborne would the fighter pilot enter the cockpit. Together with the highly trained boom operator positioned in the mother plane, they would undertake the delicate task of lowering the fighter using a large hydraulically operated boom to a point below the bomber where the fighter could be safely released. This operation proved remarkably successful, and although the recoupling process demanded great skill, it was eventually perfected to a fine art. The combination of these aircraft provided many potentials, especially as the pilot was able to come and go from the fighter, when it was in the docked position. In reality, the FICON mission was primarily intended to enhance the reconnaissance capabilities of the B-36. The F-84, whether in its straight or swept wing configuration, was an incredibly versatile aircraft. While SAC utilized it as its own fighter aircraft, there is no denying its potential as an effective fighter-bomber, as demonstrated during the Korean War. Given SAC's ability to transport such versatile aircraft thousands of miles to the very edge of enemy territory, coupled with the simultaneous development of small, compact nuclear weapons, it's conceivable that SAC could have employed its FICOM combination in a bomber role. By the mid-1950s, the B-36 was fully developed and deployed at various SAC's peacemakers had reached the pinnacle of their development, with early engine and vibration issues resolved. With the support of jet power and modifications such as the new quick-action bomb bay door, the B-36 personified the ultimate intercontinental atomic bomber of the era. Despite the technical success of the project, it continued to face political and inter-service criticism. As early as 1949, there was an investigation into the political influences surrounding the B-36 that would ultimately yielded no significant outcomes. However, the Navy's resentment toward the peacemaker was more pronounced and perhaps more justified. The cancellation of its promised 65,000 ton supercarrier, which was intended to deliver atomic attacks on potential Soviet industrial centers, was partly attributed to the Air Force's insistence that the B-36 represented a more flexible deterrent strategy rather than the eggs-in-one-basket philosophy of a carrier. Equally significant was the SAC's assertion that it could operate just as effectively from the edge of enemy territory under conditions that would be unattainable for naval aviation. To demonstrate this, B-36s would periodically fly from their central USA bases to the very edge of Soviet territory. Highly trained crews comprising pilots, navigators, radio operators, engineers, and gunners would endure for long hours of flight, often at very high altitudes over thousands of miles to the frozen wastelands of Alaska. These men understood that once in the Arctic region, should their aircraft fail and crash land, as some did, there would be minimal chance of survival in the sub-zero and uninhabited wilderness. Against these prospects, the roar of the Peacemakers' six-piston and four-jet engines must have sounded far more a blessing than a curse. The Navy's criticism of the Peacemakers persisted, reaching a point where they formally requested the Air Force to allow them to test its defensive capabilities against Navy fighters. Outwardly, the B-36 appeared to have minimal defensive armament. However, hidden beneath sliding panels, it concealed six remotely controlled turrets, each equipped with two 20mm cannons. These turrets could be raised hydraulically as needed. In conjunction with the forward nose turret and radar-controlled rear turret, the B-36 boasted a total of 16 cannons, covering every approach within a range of over half a mile. This made the Peacemaker the most heavily defended aircraft in aviation history. Eielson Air Force Base in Alaska was a point to which many B-36s on exercise would travel. Here peacemaker captains would land their massive aircraft, uncertain of the prevailing weather conditions as they made their approach. For some, the landing functioned much the same as their departure point thousands of miles away. However, for others following closely behind, visibility could be near zero, pushing the to the limit. Even in this environment, where weather conditions offered as much protection for grounded aircraft as they posed risks for those in the air, anti-aircraft protection remained abundant. Under this protection, ground crew would immediately begin servicing the landed aircraft. For these men, the journey from aircraft to heated bus was not a short one, and they had to adapt the hostile environment as best they could. With efficiency, the aircraft would be refueled by crews working on the icy wing surfaces, mindful of the potentially fatal consequences of a fall. With padded clothes and gloved hands, these ground crews took perhaps a difference, but nonetheless, a real risk as those who flew. With time always passing, each engine would be assigned its own crew member to conduct necessary checks before inclement weather set in. The extreme cold of the region meant that if aircraft had been idle for more than a brief period, the engines will require additional heating, primarily through the large air insakes to prevent them from freezing solid. To address this, large mobile heating units were developed, capable of delivering significant amounts of hot air into and around all the piston engines. The crew compartment also received similar treatment, not only to ensure habitability, but also because instrumentation and onboard equipment would not function effectively in such frigid conditions. Refueled and ready for departure, the B-36s would once again brave the cold Arctic sky on their journey southward, leaving the area to its natural inhabitants. However, the primary purpose of these exercises was to demonstrate that from Alaskan bases, it would be just as feasible to turn northwest toward Soviet territory and deliver the devastating cargo for which the B-36 was developed. Another type of cargo was also identified. Convair, which designed the 36, won the contract for the Air Force's first supersonic bomber, the B-58 Hustler, which was the culmination of Convair's long involvement with the Delta design. Moving an as-yet-unflown bomber from base to base proved to be challenging of a task, until a temporary solution was found, mounting it under a standard B-36 with its two inboard props removed, protecting the wingtips of the newcomer. This image perhaps symbolizes, above all else, the contrast between two generations of aircraft. In less than a decade, the pursuit of a faster bomber aircraft had radically altered their shape and size, to the extent that tomorrow's medium bomber could fit snugly beneath yesterday's heavy bomber. Clearly, the era of giantism was drawing to a close, yet Convair still harbored hopes for its mammoth aircraft in an upgraded form. In response to the Air Force's requirement for an all-jet heavy bomber, the company developed the YB-60. Hopes were high at Fort Worth in April 1952, when the YB-60 made its first public debut. Continuation of the production line would secure the jobs of thousands of staff and subcontractors, bringing added prosperity to the city that had produced the world's largest bomber. The YB-60 was virtually a B-36, with fully new swept wings and a tailplane. With no defensive armament other than the rear turret, the entire rear crew and quarters were omitted from the YB-60. Enhanced power and reduced weight propelled the YB-60 to a top speed of just over 500 miles per hour. Its production was achieved rapidly, as 70% of its components were standard to the B-36. The Air Force ordered two such examples to test the concept, but only actually flew one. On August 14, 1954, at a ceremony at Convair's production line in Fort Worth, the last B-36 was handed over to the Air Force. The final delivery from the Peacemaker plant must have been a bittersweet moment for the people of Fort Worth. Although Convair would continue to utilize the plant for many years, the largest plane ever to fly. A plane that many would argue, due to its sheer size, helped win a war without having to engage in combat. This is the consolidated B-36 Intercontinental Bomber, sometimes referred to as the Peacemaker or the big stick, it was the largest conventional warplane ever built. It had tremendous range and a great payload. With its six piston engines turning and later four more jets burning, the B-36 for many years projected America's military might. It was a monstrous airplane. It had six engines and they were pusher props. Now later on they hung jet pods on the ends of the wing, but the early models were all piston engines pushing. It was a huge airplane and it was designed then to carry atomic weapons. But by the mid-50s, its sheer size, cruciform shape and middling performance worked against it in a world of pure jets. However, in its heyday, the 36 was the very pinnacle of successful giantism. Rather surprising, given that a decade and a half earlier, the United States had all but abandoned the idea of operating massive aircraft known as XBLRs or the Experimental Bomber Long Range. The first attempt, the XBLR-1, resulted in the Boeing XB-15. This was an ambitious and useful experiment that demonstrated the importance of four-engined bombers. The XB-15 carried a crew of ten. However, its 150-foot wingspan proved too large for practical use. But Boeing's next offering, the XB-17, which followed a year later, perfectly met the needs of the Army. Despite the Army Air Force's decision not to proceed with the XB-15, the political mood in 1938 was undergoing a sea change. With the acquisition of total power by the Nazi Party, American military planners had to contemplate a scenario of German domination of Europe, including Britain. In America in 1938, the question being secretly asked was what if Britain did fall, perhaps the only way of striking back at the Axis powers in Europe was with the once dismissed experimental bomber Long Range. The XB-LR2 came together as the XB-19, somewhat bigger than the XB-15, and in fact bigger than any other aircraft in the world at that time. It was to be built by Douglas Aircraft in California. However, by the time the B-19 first flew, the Battle of Britain had already been won when a few hundred pilots of RAF Fighter Command were just able to halt the Nazi juggernaut. Notwithstanding these events, the B-19 project continued. Some indication of the project's size can be gained from the scope of its planning. The XB-19 required no less than four acres of drawings, 500 engineers, and more than two million hours of R&D and construction. The two massive main tyres were 8 foot high, and each was of 24 ply using 150 miles of rayon cord and three miles of steel wire. All of the flying control surfaces were so large that they could only be operated via power assisted devices. The rudder alone took up an area of 237 square feet of movable surface. To communicate within such a large aircraft it was necessary to install a 24 set telephone system and a loudspeaker come fire alarm warning device. And to enable missions of up to three days and accommodate at least 13 crew, it was necessary to have a galley, a wardroom as well as a bunk room. Such were the proportions of what Douglas liked to refer to as their hemispheric defender. In theory, this Bailmouth flying machine could fly more than one third of the distance around the world without refueling, perhaps reaching parts of Europe and the return trip too. On June 27, 1941, the B-19 made its first flight from Douglas Aircraft in Santa Monica to March Air Force Base. Despite various suggestions to the local press at the time, the B-19 was really a proof-of-concept aircraft to explore what could be learnt about building giant aircraft. The B-19 also presented the same problems and lengthy delays as Boeing had endured with However, the Army remained firm that the XBLR-2 would be delivered. In fact, the Douglas Company's view may have been quite sound, as the war had necessitated that the two prototype long-range bombers be ordered six months before the B-19 ever flew. The Northrop B-35 and its competitor, the enormous consolidated B-36 would use whatever data could be migrated from Douglas. In fact, the B-35's design was a totally different concept, relying upon advanced flying wing aerodynamics to gain maximum range, an idea that was far ahead of its time. Nevertheless, it was the consolidated XB-36 which the Air Force adopted. It was a symbol of pure 1940s giantism and likely would have benefited from some of the ideas incorporated in the B-19. However it was a virtual flying gas tank, carrying with it all the fuel it needed for a there and back European mission. The Second World War had come and gone before consolidated giant reached production, and as Britain did not fall to Germany, the 36's absence had no impact on the conflict, although its presence became critical in the Cold War that followed. It was during this potentially cataclysmic test that America's peacemaker really came of age. The newly formed Strategic Air Command under General Curtis LeMay would regularly fly to far distant territories just to demonstrate its enormous reach. It was all a very effective show of force, although by the mid-fifties one that was starting to be questioned. like a glider. It was easy to fly. Anybody could have flown it with five hours of stick time. It was a beautiful airplane. It's good that they never had to fly military missions, even with the B-47 Stratojet medium bomber demonstrated the need for a faster swept wing all jet power heavy bomber. Yet Consolidated felt they could still provide a ready answer. The B-60 arrived after a standard 36 fuselage was married to swept wings and tail surfaces. It was propelled by eight turbojet engines. The concept would have been economical, but advances in in-flight refueling made it no longer necessary for massive fuel loads to be carried. The age of giantism was coming to an end. Strategic Air Command wanted a smaller, faster and more sophisticated heavy bomber, and Boeing's B-52 Stratofortress fitted the bill. And in terms of years of service for dollars spent, the B-52 was able to adapt and evolve in a way Convair's big stick never could. Still, credit where it's due, the B-36 was for a number of years America's sole intercontinental bomber and served as an effective deterrent, appropriately earning the type its other nickname, the Peacemaker. The Boeing B-47 Stratojet is a retired American long-range, six-engine, turbo-powered strategic bomber, designed to fly at high subsonic speed and high altitude to avoid enemy interceptor aircraft. The primary mission of the B-47 was as a nuclear bomber capable of striking targets within the Soviet Union. The Boeing B-47 Stratojet was the perfect strategic weapon for its time, so feared by its enemies that the bomber never had to perform its lethal nuclear mission. Sadly, the B-47 also suffered losses on a scale that would be utterly intolerable today. Over its lifetime, 203 aircraft, or about 10% of the total procured, were lost in crashes, with 464 deaths. The B-47 arose from an informal 1943 requirement for a jet-powered reconnaissance bomber, drawn up by the United States Army Air Forces or USAAF to prompt manufacturers to start research into jet bombers. Boeing was among several companies to respond to this request. One of its designs, the Model 424, was basically a scaled-down version of the piston-engined B-29 Superfortress, equipped with four jet engines. In 1944, this initial concept evolved into a formal request for proposal to design a new bomber with a maximum speed of 550 miles an hour and a cruise speed of 450 miles an hour, a range of 3,500 miles and a service ceiling of 45,000 feet. In December of 1944, North American Aviation, Convair, Boeing and the Glenn Martin Company submitted proposals for the new long-range jet bomber. Wind tunnel testing had shown that the drag from the engine installation of the Model 424 was too high, so, Boeing's entry was a revised design, the Model 432, with four engines buried in the forward fuselage. The USAAF awarded study contracts to all four companies, requiring that the North American and Convair concentrate on four-engine designs to become the B-45 and the XB-48. The power plant was to be General Electric's new TG-1AE turbojet engine. In May 1945, the Bonn-Komman mission of the Army Air Forces inspected the secret German aeronautics laboratory near Braunschweig. Landkommand's team, included the Chief of Technical Staff at Boeing, George S. Schreyer. He had heard about the controversial swept-wing theory of R.T. Jones at Langley. But seeing German models of swept-wing aircraft and extensive supersonic wind tunnel data, the concept was decisively confirmed. He wired his home office. Stopped the bomber design. And changed the wing design. Analysis by Boeing engineer Vig Danza, suggested an optimum swept back angle of about 35 degrees. Boeing's aeronautical engineers modified the model 432, which swept wings in a tail to produce the model 448, which was presented to the USAAF in September 1945. It retained the four TG-180 jet engines in its forward fuselage, with two more TG-180s in the rear fuselage. The flush-mounted air intakes for the rear engines were inadequate while the USAAF considered the engine installation within the fuselage to be a fire hazard. The engines were moved to streamlined pylon-mounted pods, under the wings. Leading to that X iteration, the Model 450, which featured two TG-180s in a twin pod mounted on a pylon, about a third of the way outboard on each wing, plus, another engine at each wing tip. The Army Air Force liked this new configuration, so Boeing's engines refined it, moving the outer engines further inboard, about three-fourths of the wingspan. The thin wings provided no space for tricycle main gear to retract, so would have needed a considerable bolt in the fuselage after the bomb bay for lateral stability. The only way to get a bomb bay long enough for an A-bomb was to use a so-called bicycle landing gear. The two main gear assemblies arranged in a tandem configuration, and outrigger struts filled to the inboard engine pods. As the landing gear arrangement made rotation impossible, it was designed so that the aircraft rests on the ground at the proper angle for take-off. Pleased with the refined Model 450 design, in April 1946, the USAAF ordered two prototypes to be designated XB-47. Assembly began in June 1947. The first XB-47 was rolled out on September 12, 1947. According to the aviation authors, Bill Gunston and Peter Gilchrist, Boeing subjected the first prototype to one of the most comprehensive ground test programs ever undertaken. The XP-47 prototype flew its first flight on 17 December 1947, with test pilots Robert Robbins and Scott Ulster at the controls. It lasted 27 minutes, flying from Boeing Field in Seattle to Moses Lake Airfield in central Washington state. While not experiencing major problems, the emergency hardware system was needed to raise the flaps and the engine fire warning indicators falsely eliminated. Robbins stated that it had good flight characteristics. Robbins had been skeptical about the XB-47, saying that before his first flight, he had prayed, Oh God, please help me through the next two hours. Robbins soon realized that he had an extraordinary aircraft. Chuck Yeager also flew the XB-47, noting it was so aerodynamically clean that he had difficulty landing on the Edwards Lakebed. In February 1949, Ross Schley and Joe Howell broke all coast-to-coast speed records, flying from Moses Lake Air Force Base to Andrews Air Force Base, averaging 607.8 miles per hour. During an early flight test, the Kennedy came off at high speed, telling pilot Scott Osler. The aircraft was safely landed by the co-pilot. The accident resulted in a canopy redesign and the hiring of pilot Tex Johnston as chief test pilot. The second XP-47 designation 46066 prototype first flew on the 21st of July 1948 and, following its delivery to the USAF in December of that year, served as a flying testbed until 1954. Its final destination was Chanute AFB, where it was used as a maintenance and familiarization aircraft. The second prototype was equipped with the more powerful General Electric J47-GE-3 turbojets. The first prototype was later retrofitted with these engines. Flight testing of the prototypes was careful and methodical, since the design was so new in so many ways. Both XB-47 prototypes were test flown at Edwards Air Force Base. The first XP-47, designation 46-065, was disassembled and scrapped in 1954, making the second prototype, 46-066, the sole surviving XP-47. In late 2015, the Flight Test Historical Foundation began fundraising to purchase XP-47 for relocation to the Flight Test Museum at Edwards Air Force Base. The purchase was completed in August 2016 and, on September 21, the aircraft arrived at Edwards Air Force Base for reassembly, restoration, and eventual display at the Flight Test Museum. By mid-1948, the USAF's bomber competition had already been through one iteration, betting the North American XB-45 against the Convair XB-46. The expectation was that the B-45 production would be terminated if either of the remaining two designs in the competition, the Boeing XB-47 and the Martin XB-48, proved superior. It is sometimes claimed that the final production decision was made as a result of Boeing President Bill Allen inviting USAF General K.B. Wolf in charge of bomber production for a ride in the XB-47. A formal contract for 10 aircraft was signed on 3 September 1948. The XB-47, which looked nothing like contemporary bombers, was described by Boeing as a sleet, beautiful outcome that was highly advanced. The 35-degree swept wings were shoulder-mounted, the inboard turbojet engines mounted in the twin pods at about a third of the span, and the outboard engines slightly near the wingsip. This arrangement reduced the bending moment at the wings' roots, saving structural weight, the engines' mass acted as counter-flutter weights. Its maximum speed was limited to 787 km an hour, to avoid control reversal. Where aileron deflections would cause the wings to twist and to produce a roll in the opposite direction to that desired by the pilot. The wings were fitted with a set of fuller flaps, that extended well behind the wing to enhance lift at slow speeds. The flight control surfaces were powered, augmenting the pilot's inputs, and reducing the extension required to overcome the forces involved. The XB-47 was designed to carry a crew of three in a pressurized forward compartment, a pilot and a co-pilot, in tandem, in a long fighter-style bubble canopy, and a navigator in a compartment in the nose. The co-pilot doubled as a tail gunner, using the remotely controlled radar-directed tail gun, and the navigator as a bombardier. The bubble canopy, which provided a high level of visibility to the pilots, pitched up and slid backwards, as the cockpit was high off the ground, the crew entered via a door in a ladder on the underside of a nose. The extreme front of the nose was initially glazed for visual navigation and bombsighting, but this requirement was soon deleted together with the glazing. Most production versions had a metal nose with no windows. AK series bombsight provided integrated radar navigation and visual navigation. The optical portion extended through the nose in a small dome. During the late 1940s, the bomber was hailed as the fastest of its class in the world. The first prototypes were fitted with General Electric's J-35 turbojets, the production version of the TG-180, with 3,970 pounds of thrust. Early jet engines did not develop good thrust at low speeds, so to assist the take-off when heavily loaded, the B-47 had provisions for fitting solid-fuel rocket-assisted take-off or RATO rockets. Each generating roughly 1,000 pounds of static thrust, early aircraft had mounts for nine RATO units, built into each side of the rear fuselage, arranged in three rows with three bottles. Most of the space within the upper fuselage was taken up by self-sealing fuel tanks, the wing had been deemed unsuitable for storing fuel. The performance of the Model 450 was projected to be so good that the bomber would be as fast as fighters than on the drawing board. Thus, the only defensive armament was to be a tail turret with.250 caliber or 12.7 mm ANM2 Browning machine guns, which would in principle be directed by an automatic fire control system. The two XB-47s were neither fitted with Comet equipment nor tail turrets, as they were engineering and flight test aircraft only. The total bomb load capacity was to be 25,000 pounds. Production aircraft were to be equipped with modern electronics for navigation, bombing, countermeasures, and turret fire control. Navigation was more difficult than on earlier aircraft due to the higher speed involved. One problem with the aircraft was that at higher altitudes, where the pure turbojet engines could produce good fuel economy, the wing was very compromised. At the top of the B-47's envelope, about 35,000 feet, it was coffin corner. That means at this level, which produced the most range at most weights due to fuel consumption, there was an envelope of 9.3 km an hour between maximum Mach and stall speed. For the B-47 to cross the Atlantic Ocean, it had to be flown this high. Due to its rudimentary autopilot, the pilot had to leave it turned off and spend up to 8 hours diligently monitoring the airspeed and adjusting the throttles to avoid going into stall. The aircraft was so aerodynamically clean that the rapid descent from higher cruise altitude to a landing pattern required dragging the deployed rear landing gear. The relatively high wing loading required a high landing speed of 330 km an hour. To shorten the landing roll, USAF test pilot Major Guy Townsend promoted the addition of a 32-foot, German-invented, ribbon drag chute. Thrust reversers had not been developed at this time. For the same reason, the P-47 was the first mass-produced aircraft to be equipped with an anti-skid braking system. A related problem was that the aircraft's engines would have to be throttled down on landing approach. Since it could take as long as 20 seconds to throttle them back up to full power, the bomber could not easily do a touch-and-go momentary landing. A 16-foot approach chute, drogue parachute, provided aerodynamic drag so that the aircraft could be flown at approach speeds with the engines throttled at ready-to-spool medium power. On the ground, the pilots used a 32-foot brake chute. The brake chute could be deployed to stop the aircraft from porpoising or mounting after a hard landing on the front nose gear. Training typically included an hour of dragging the approach parachute around the landing pattern for multiple practice landings. The USAF Strategic Air Command operated multiple B-47 models from 1951 through 1965. Upon entry to service, its performance was closer to that of the contemporary fighters than the extant B-36 Peacemaker bomber. Setting multiple records with ease, it handled well in flight, the controls having a fighter-like white touch. The large bubble canopy enhanced the flying crew's vision and gave a fighter-like feel, but also caused the internal temperature variations for the crew. In 1953, the B-57 became operational. It was so sluggish on takeoff and too fast on landings, an unpleasant combination. If landed at the wrong angle, the B-47 would douse fore and aft. If the pilot did not lift off for another go-around, instability would quickly cause it to skid onto one wing and cartwheel. Because the wings and surfaces flexed in flight, low altitude speed restrictions were necessary to ensure effective flight control. Initial mission profiles included the loft bombing of nuclear weapons. As the training for this imposes repeated high stress on the aircraft, the airframe lifetime would have been severely limited by mental fatigue, and, this maneuver was also eliminated. Improved training led to a good safety record, and few crew felt the aircraft was unsafe or too demanding. But apparently there were some air crews who had little affection for the B-47. By 1956, the USAF had 28 wings of the B-47 bombers and five wings of our B-47 reconnaissance aircraft. The B-47 was the first line of America's strategic nuclear deterrent, often operating from forward Morocco, Spain, Alaska, Greenland and Guam. B-47s were often set up on the one-third alert, with a third of operational aircraft available sitting on handstands or an alert ramp adjacent to the runway. Landed with fuel and nuclear weapons, crews on standby, ready to attack the USSR at short notice. Crews were trained to perform minimal interval takeoffs. One bomber following another into the air at intervals of as little as 15 seconds to launch as fast as possible. MITO could be hazardous, as the bombers left wingtip vortices and general turbulence behind them. The first-generation turbojet engines, fitted with water injection systems, also created dense black smoke. The B-47 bomber wings started to be reduced. B-47 production ceased in 1957. Though modifications and rebuilds continued. Operational practice for B-47 bomber operations during this time, went from high altitude bombing to low altitude strike, which, was judged more likely to penetrate Soviet defenses. Crews trained in pop-up attacks, coming in at low level at 787 km an hour and then climbing abruptly near the target before releasing a nuclear weapon. One of the more notable mishaps involving a B-47, occurred on the 5th of February 1958, near Savannah, Georgia. In the so-called 1958 Tybee Island B-47 crash, a B-47 based at Homestead AFB, Florida, was engaged in a simulated combat exercise against an F-86 fighter. As was the practice at the time, the B-47 was carrying a single 76,000-pound, or 3,400-kilo Mark 15 nuclear bomb, without its core. During this exercise, the two aircraft collided. The F-86 crashed after the pilot ejected, while the B-47 suffered substantial damage, including loss of power and one outboard engine. After three unsuccessful landing attempts at Hunter Air Force Base, the bomber pilot had to soft-drop the Mark 15 weapon off the coast of Savannah, Georgia, near Tybee Island, after which the B-47 landed safely, despite an extensive nine-month search, the unarmed bomb was never found. Additional fatigue problems appeared later, especially in the upper fuselage lingerons, but for the most part, B-47s were cleared for flight. Although the response to the emergency was ultimately successful, the results were not immediate. Despite a dramatic dip in flying hours, there were 22 more B-47s destroyed in 1958. Not until 1960 did the corrective efforts take full effect, and as the B-52 fleet grew, economics dictated that the B-37 phase-out would follow. By 1966, only 16 R-B-47s were left operating. For a time, the B-47's high-performance and diligent crew provided the United States with overwhelming strategic advantage. But, the experience was a sobering one. SAC learned from it. It vastly improved training and flying safety procedures, and the B-52 quickly became the Air Force's principal nuclear bomber. The final recorded flight of a B-47, was on 17 June 1986, when a B-47E was escorted to flight-worthy condition for a one-time ferry flight. This aircraft was flown from Nevo Air Force Weapon Station China Lake, California to Castle Air Force Base, California, for static display at the Castle Air Museum, where it patiently resides. I'm going to have to go to the bathroom. I'm going to have to go to the bathroom. I'm going to have to go to the bathroom. You go to bed now. I'm going to be a good boy. I'm going to be a good boy. I'm going to be a good boy. I'm not being told. It's true. It's true. It's true. I'm going to go to the bathroom. One thing you'll find certainly flies a lot different than the airplanes you've been working When you get in the front seat, even with an instructor pilot in the rear, you must have full knowledge of the aircraft, its systems, emergency procedures, its capabilities and limitations. You can pay off with your life sometime. How fast does a B-47 really go? What's the scoop on altitude? Does the sweat back wing really stall out easier? What's the range? Wait a minute, fellas. To fly the B-47 safely, you must learn it thoroughly. Believe me, you can't learn it overnight. So absorb all the training you can get. Absorb it thoroughly. Now sit down, fellas. I don't want to scare you. There's nothing mysterious about the B-47. It's a good plane, a safe plane, provided you know what you're doing at all times. It has some new features you're probably not familiar with. Features that will present you with some new problems. To let you meet the B-47 and get you familiar with some of these differences. Well, let's go back a little in time. As you all know, in the evolution of weapons, instruments of offense and defense are continuously competing for superiority. You build a tank, then you develop an anti-tank gun. You build a bomber for offense, then a better fighter for defense. If it happens to be a jet fighter, then the logical next move is to produce a jet bomber, but quick. Well, that was about the situation in June, I think it was. June of 1943. The Nazis were putting jet fighters into combat, so our need for a jet bomber was clear. An aircraft to be built around an engine. It would have to have speed, more speed than was ever thought possible for a bomber before. It needed altitude, the higher the better. It had to have range. That was a sore spot, too. For the first time in any set of requirements, ease of maintenance was a priority consideration. Designers and engineers all over the country analyzed the requirements in terms of the data available in 1943. They worked with slip sticks, drafting boards, wind tunnels. It was common knowledge that the piston ponders of the day attained their optimum range and performance at a moderate speed and in the lower altitudes. One of the most discouraging features of the jet engine was its staggering fuel consumption. This generated some also provoking problems of range and extremely high gross weights. It was known that a jet engine would deliver its best performance near its maximum speed and at very high altitudes. It would also use less fuel operating under these conditions. In the first model, four jet engines were mounted on a thin version of a conventional straight wing. But a straight wing just didn't have enough speed advantage. To find a high-speed wing, the wind tunnel did a free beer business with all kinds of problems. Early data favored a clean wing, so the engines were fitted into the fuselage along with the fuel tanks. The wings still couldn't achieve enough speed. About this time, the Allied armies had conquered Hitler's Europe. Captured Nazi research data revealed that the Germans had developed a radical wing design, the swept wing. The plans indicated that the wing could withstand extremely high speeds. Wind tunnel tests confirmed this fact, but it also revealed some sobering problems of sweep back. By increasing the angle of sweep, you can increase the critical speed of the airfoil. But, as you increase the angle of sweep, you decrease the span. Since the range of any airfoil is a function of span, they had to compromise to get the maximum of both speed and range. The wind tunnel and slide rule discovered problems of lateral control at the lower airspeeds caused by the tendency of the outer portion of the swept wing to stall first. So the problems of lateral control were reduced by designing large aileron and flap areas. To keep the wing clean, the engines were kept in the fuselage along with the fuel. However, with this arrangement, an engine fire could be disastrous. The insulation required to protect the fuselage and fuel was impractical. The engines were too inaccessible for maintenance, so they were fitted below the wing. When the outboard engine nacelle was added, the problems of lateral control were further reduced. To keep the wing clean and thin, a variety of landing gear arrangements were tried. As the design progressed, the tandem gear came into the picture, retracting the main gear along the center line of the fuselage. This looked like the answer. In order to accept the high load factors imposed upon it during all flight conditions, the thin wing had to be extremely flexible. So the wing was designed to move through a 17-foot arc at the tip. The wind tunnel experiments on this flexible model were severe. The tunnel's wind currents worked the model over in every possible attitude of flight, subjecting it to every speed condition from the slowest up to disintegration. Here engineers discovered some disadvantages of the swept wing, like additional weight for wing structure, tough problems of lateral control at low airspeed, longer takeoff and landing rolls due to the necessary high speeds. But the speed potential of a swept wing was worth accepting the disadvantages. By November 1945, the present configuration and arrangement was pretty well firmed up, and Boeing began to build two prototypes incorporating a 35-degree angle of sweep in the wing. On December 17, 1947, 44 years to the day after the Wright brothers made aviation an at Kitty Hawk Beach, the jet bomber idea went on trial. A stratojet was all set to try its wing, and they worked. A bomber designed to have a margin of performance over all other aircraft. An offensive flying machine designed to aggravate the interception problem of fighters and frustrate every possible defense for years to come. It didn't take long to realize that we had the offensive weapon we ordered. That the Air Force had become landlord of the fastest bomber in the world. The first airplanes that rolled off the assembly lines at Wichita were subjected to intensive tests by a composite group of Air Force specialists. They learned the airplane the hard way, during extensive, sometimes merciless, operational suitability tests. A lot of plain old hard work to learn if it was a safe airplane. How to maintain it. What supplies, facilities, and personnel were needed. The test program paid off in a big way for the Air Force. Sizable dividends in knowledge and experience. For instance, they learned some very important facts about landing. Don't land the front gear first. If you do, the rear gear is forced down and the airplane is flying again at a dangerous angle of attack. Under normal conditions, don't pull the drag chute in the air, because it will decelerate the plane into a stall condition and may prove dangerous if the plane is too high. The chute can correct for many things in a landing, such as drifting at a crosswind, bounce on landing, or too fast in approach. However, it should not be used as a pilot error corrective measure. With their test, the men of the project were able to discover many of the shortcomings and limitations of the B-47 Hurling, so that the manufacturer could correct for them and minimize the modifications necessary on the mass production model. Here's a bird that will perform successfully if you, the people who will make the decisions and the controls, will only spend the effort to learn and adapt to a new set of flying problems and characteristics. That's your mission. When you've completed that mission, you'll be B-47 crew members yourselves. You know, the B-47 is a pretty outstanding airplane on the ground, too. It's covered with maintenance access panels to help the men behind the flying crews to do their jobs in less time than previous bombers required. Packing that handy drag chute is no problem either. It's almost as easy as putting dirty clothes in a barracks bag. Your B-47 needs an amazing volume of fuel for a long-range operation. In a jet airplane, fuel is a critical item. Every phase of your mission plan, range, endurance, as well as takeoffs and landings, gives fuel quantity a high priority. So your cockpit fuel gauges read in pounds and not in gallons. This lets you know at a glance the weight of the fuel available in your tanks and what's more important, the amount of power you have to complete your mission. Now that you're here to become B-47 is an elaborate and serious enterprise. So you plan seriously for every detail of the mission. Just keep in mind that with the high speed and limited fuel your mission plan for this aircraft has to be right the first time. Now actually a B-47 mission plan is less complicated, but a lot more critical than mission plans for the aircraft you have been flying. Anyone who has flown the airplane on a few missions will tell you that you can get the complete advantages out of every feature of the B-47 if you will plan every phase of its operation. In the air, you know you're going to be your own flight engineer. Even so, planning your missions in a B-47 is really simpler than with previous bombers. You don't have the old string of problems like cowl flaps, mixture controls, manifold pressure, and so forth. But you do have some new problems to consider with the airplane. And you'll have the solution right with you. As standard an item is your oxygen mask and crash helmet. If you're serious with your mission plan, it's like a guarantee in writing that you'll be getting the maximum performance out of the airplane. There's only one altitude for the best range. Since it's based largely on gross weight, your mission plan figures the fuel you're going to use for taxi and takeoff and during climb to altitude. In order to maintain your optimum altitude at all times, you allow for the rapid with a rapid decrease in gross weight by use of a climbing flight plan. But with a serious approach to your mission planning, you can pretty accurately estimate all the variables and get the maximum performance from every feature of the airplane. To guarantee that you'll be around to collect some of those fogies you're building up, don't be in too big a hurry when you get out to the airplane. It's never a bad idea to start things off discussing the status of the airplane with the crew chief. He won't be around if you need him upstairs. Flying this route makes large demands on all the plane driving experience you've ever logged. The three people who will make this piece of machinery a powerful tactical weapon will spend their flying time in an inner pressurized capsule set high in the forward section. The cockpit checklist is designed to save time and fuel on the ground because every minute the engine runs on the ground cuts a big chunk off your flying range. To complete the cockpit check requires interphone conversation between the three crew members and the man on the ground. Let's have an interphone check. Copilot ready. Navigator all set. Ground crew ready. Ready to check surface control. Boost off. Right aileron up. Left aileron down. When you're flying at high speeds, the air exerts an extremely heavy force on all the control surfaces. In this airplane, you have the option of greatly reducing the effort involved by cutting in the hydraulic power control system, the boost, to all the control surfaces. The newness of the airplane with its new pattern of flying characteristics required a new kind of control surface, the flapper arm. They're available to minimize and perhaps eliminate a potentially serious problem of maneuvering the B-47. The basic problem is simply this. On a swept wing, the center of lift tends always to shift outboard. At low airspeeds, in a stall for example, the still air on the top surface of the wing moves toward the wing tips and literally piles up. With the surface power control on, the flapperon, once extended, will rotate upward when the aileron on its side goes up over five degrees. The flapperon actually spills the still air before it can pile up and create a serious lateral control problem at low air speeds. You don't have to allow any time for engine warm-up. Once these jets are fired up, they're ready to fly. They do have a mean streak, so clear the danger areas well ahead and behind the engine and go to it. Ready to start number four. Copilot ready. We're on clear and ready. Entertaining number four. 6% Start on 4 Turn around and look for four, ready for five. Don't be in too big a hurry to get the ball going. easier way to wash out a jet engine fat for starting technique. It's a bit hot. Taxi out with two engines. The minimum thrust to start a ground roll and still hold down fuel consumption. The problem of directional control while taxiing this airplane is different too. Neither differential braking nor differential engine thrust will steer a tandem gear. So the forward gear is steerable hydraulically with some rudder pedal. The ratio of steering rotation is selected by the pilot. 120 degrees swing for towing, 120 degrees for taxiing, and 12 degrees for takeoff and landing. It's a good thing. Once you're lined up on the runway, all you need is a final check and power for the takeoff rule. The takeoff attitude of the plane is safe. You always take off and land with full flaps. At a crosswind, you'll use some aileron to keep from whistling. The flap rods will be in their pitching too. You can't pull it off. When it's good and ready, the plane will fly off by itself. You'll never have to milk up the flaps. If you reach your mushing or sinking point before you have sufficient flap-up speed, the flaps will stop automatically until safe speed is achieved. Because of the inefficiency of jet engines at low air speeds, the plane requires a considerably longer ground roll. The airplane was designed to have a maximum gross takeoff weight of over 180,000 pounds. Gross weight, runway elevation, and outside air temperature have a large effect on takeoff distance. So, under certain conditions, the B-47 needs some sort of assistance for takeoff. In your mission plan, you determine your optimum speed for firing the unit. When you're ready, they fire simultaneously by a single switch. Firing off. Your fuel consumption can be three times as great at sea level as at high altitude, since the only way to lean out is to go up. Climb to optimum cruise altitude as quickly as possible. Of course, the best indicated climb speed will decrease with altitude. So take it up at the airspeed you figure to be best in your mission plan. From here on, there are only two things that will affect range, your throttle and your altitude. At altitude you'll get the maximum range of performance out of the airplane by following the gradual climbing flight path you sketched in your mission plan. So after leveling off, stay at a constant mach number and a pretty constant power setting. There's something else you're going to appreciate about this airplane. Danger from engine fire is greatly minimized. For one thing, all the fuel aboard is in the fuselage. So if you ever have a fire, all you need to do is cut off the flow of the fuel to the engine and isolate the engine with the fire button and the fire should go out. No CO2 required. In a B-47, you're flying the fastest and safest means of round-trip transportation from a forward base to any target in the world. Speed and altitude are your principal defense. You have a comfortable margin on almost everything else that flies. Many times on your missions you're going to want to operate as close to the speed of sound as possible, practical and safe. There's an interesting point about that, one I didn't know about before anyway. It seems a curious old German scientist named Mark discovered that the speed of sound varies with the temperature of still air. Now generally speaking, as you go up into the higher altitudes, the air gets colder and the speed of sound decreases. In the new group of expressions you'll be picking up around here, the speed of sound is known as Mach 1. Your B-47 is built to safely approach a certain percentage of Mach 1. Knowing how to operate within your allowable percentage is going to help you become one of those ripe old pilots someday. The percentage you are allowed is about as critical as your paycheck. As a matter of fact, your critical speed is called your critical Mach number. The airplane has a purposeful instrument called a Mach meter, which calibrates your true airspeed in terms of Mach. It saves a lot of mileage on your slide rule and lets you know, at any time, the ratio between the speed you're flying and the speed of sound. For example, at 0.75 Mach, you're moving along at 75% of the speed of sound at your altitude. B-47's stall characteristics are good. They do have one feature though that you better dig in and learn all about. An aerodynamic effect called buffeting. On the B-47 it amounts to a vibration all over the airplane that can build up to a violent and dangerous shaking under certain conditions. It starts when the smooth airflow across the airfoils begins to separate in any stall. As the flow separation increases, drag increases rapidly and the airplane begins to buffeting. If it gets to an advanced stage, the controls become ineffective. In a high-speed stall, advanced buffeting means that you are on the edge of serious trouble because you are approaching your critical Mach number. All airplanes have a critical Mach number, Few have the power to reach such a high speed. But the B-47 has more than enough power to reach its critical mark. To get the most efficient use of the airplane's capabilities, you have to fly at a speed that is very close to your critical mark number. You can flip the B-47 right up next to its critical mark limit and either cruise there safely or clobber yourself. It's your own personal choice to make. If you ever do get in trouble, here's what's happening. As a multi-engine jet jockey, you have to fly inside a couple of rigid speed curves. On one side, your stall speed increases with altitude. On the other, high-speed buffeting speed decreases with altitude. The higher you go, the narrower the operational range gets between a high and low speed stall in level flight. It's possible to reach an altitude where you will stall out in level flight. If you do get up against your critical Mach number and into buffeting, it takes time to back off. To slow down in a reciprocating airplane, normally all you had to do was either decrease power or climb. But in a jet airplane, to minimize the possibility of flame out, your minimum RPM automatically gets higher with altitude. So at the higher altitude, even with the throttles back to idle, you will be cruising at a very high RPM. To climb would only put you farther into the corner. Because of pilot fatigue on the return from a mission or pilot error any time, you can lose track of mach number and the other variables until you have too much of all of them on your hand. For safety reasons, you have to keep an eye on the key instrument all the time. Of course, the best idea is to realize well in advance that you are approaching your critical mark or stall speed and plan ahead. Letdown brings up another new group of special problems for solutions. In order to avoid the enormous fuel consumption of low altitudes, you'll maintain your cruising altitude much closer to your destination point than in a prop-driven aircraft, practically over your home base. The main landing gear has over twice the total drag of the airplane. They act as your dive brakes. The rear gear and outriggers can be lowered at very high indicated airspeed. The front gear is lowered as soon as the aircraft has decreased speed to below 174 knots. Shulk told the best indicated airspeed you estimated in your mission plan and come on down. As you approach your landing base, you spend a minute or two checking your fuel and computing your gross weight at the landing point. Once you've figured it out, you can determine your safest approach and touchdown speed. Many times you'll enter the pattern with full flaps and start flowing down as early as the downwind leg. Flowing the B-47 down, even in a power-off condition, is a time-consuming operation because there's no prop drag to help you, and the airplane is so clean. We have some pretty strong reasons for a well-calculated approach and landing. Remember this, every five knots of excess Once you're committed to a landing, don't hold the airplane on. For the best landings, you let the two main gear touch simultaneously. But it's still a good, safe landing if the rear gear touches first and the forward unit settles easily on the runway. At a crosswind during both takeoff and landing rolls, you can hold the wings level with the aileron. Jet engines produce a sizable thrust even at idle rpm settings. It takes about twice as long to go from idle to 100% as from 50% to 100%. So maintain about 50% rpm until you're certain of landing or going around. Remember there's no lift across the wings from propellers. So if it's necessary to refuse a landing, decide it as early as possible, and open the prop. Since approach speeds are very close to actual touchdown speeds, fly well ahead of the airplane all the time. The jet engine's slow reaction time doesn't allow you the privilege of last minute decision. Plan ahead. Remember, if your decision to go around is too late, you'll have to allow the plane to touch the runway after you apply full throttle. You can touch your ground roll almost at hand by releasing the drag chute as you contact the runway. It's made a lot of good landings and safe landings out of potentially bad or dangerous ones. Remember the chute can correct many errors like bounce, deviation on a crosswind, or a landing that's too fast. It's most effective So get it out as soon as you can. If necessary, anti-skid brakes and chutes can be used simultaneously. However, it saves a good deal of tire and brake wear if you wait until the plane has defelerated a good deal before applying the brakes. In the evolution of weapons, instruments of offense and defense are competing continuously for superiority. The arsenal of flying machines, the advantage of speed has formally been the exclusive problem of flight. B-47 is the new concept, the new advantage for round-trip bombing missions. For a long time to come, the B-47 will be the best answer, possibly the best solution, for the largest problems of delivering bombs to target and getting flight crews home safe. In the B-47, your greatest asset is speed. If you'll have enough of it at your fingertips to make interception by present-day fighters extremely difficult. The B-47 has a way of flying all it's own. It takes a little time and a lot of hard work to master it. But if you honestly like to fly, it's worth it. But if you honestly like to fly, it's worth it. It's really the best.
