Alexander the Great is one of the
most iconic figures in history. A warrior king whose bravado and brilliant
tactics forged an Empire that stretched from Greece to the ends of the world by the age of
just 32. Yet much of this success is owed to the soldiers of his army and in particular the
Macedonian riders who delivered his signature hammer and anvil strikes. Most of the time
we hear of these elite Companion Cavalry only as they thunder into battle. However such
a limited window into their role does them a disservice. Today let us dive deeper
into the history of the Companion Cavalry. a big thanks to the great courses
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dive into the material you are most interested in Our story begins with the
early history of Macedon. Geographically speaking it is an area with two
distinct regions; the fertile lowland plains fed by three principle rivers and the rugged,
highlands covered by vast forested mountains. These conditions led to the development of many
small, independent communities with different languages, cultures, and religious traditions.
Each tribal group organized locally and crowned their own kings. Thus the land was naturally
fractured and resistant to regional consolidation. The lowlands were perhaps the easiest to tame
and it is here that the seed for the Macedonian kingdom would be planted. Legends tell of how the
central Makednoi people began their ascent during the early archaic period under the leadership
of the Argead dynasty whose kings traced their lineage to Argos. Unfortunately little can be said
of their exploits during these murky years. It's only around the mid 6th century BC that things
come into focus with the reign of Amyntas the 1st. When we pick up the narrative at
this point, it appears that Macedon was already an established Kingdom
tucked into the central lowlands. For centuries its rulers had governed over
local affairs, establishing diplomatic, trade, and military relations with the
tribes and city-states around them. However the status quo would be
disturbed by the arrival of the Persians. In 513 BC the invaders launched significant
military operations in the area against the Thracians and Scythians, forging the province of
Skudra in the process. While Macedon was initially spared this conquest after giving earth and water
it would be fully subjugated two decades later in the aftermath of the Ionian Revolt. Shortly
thereafter the Greco-Persian wars broke out in the early 5th century BC. During these conflicts,
the Macedonians would find themselves aligned with the Achaemenids, fighting primarily as mounted
elites, such as at the Battle of Plataea. Yet while the Macedonians provided men, food,
and material for the war effort they were not entirely loyal. King Alexander the 1st
for example is said to have also sent the Greek allies supplies and information.
When the Persians attempted a land retreat at the end of the wars through the Balkans,
it was Macedon which descended upon and destroyed their column on the march.
This victory allowed Alexander the 1st to now rule over an independent kingdom. His reign
proved transformative as he expanded the borders of the realm, began reforms to model his court
after Athens, and imported many Greek practices. In response the southern city-states
granted him the title of “friend of the Greeks” and allowed the monarch to actually
participate in the exclusive Olympic games. When Greek turned on Greek
during the Peloponnesian War, Macedon profited greatly by selling raw
materials to both sides whilst avoiding the worst of the bloodshed. King Archelaus the
1st made the most of this advantageous position by implementing many internal reforms with an eye
on bolstering his military standing. This involved building new roads and strongholds as well
as reforming the infantry and cavalry. He also established a new capital at Pella where
the king invited some of the most famous Greek poets and artists to his court. Yet the
Kingdom was not without its own struggles involving assassinations, revolts, and
invasions. For example, Archelaus would be murdered on a hunt by one of his companions
which set off a chain of short lived rulers. Some progress was made by kings like Amyntas
the 3rd but by and large, Macedonia would spend most of the 4th century BC adrift in a sea
of turmoil beset by enemies on all sides. It's into this time of crisis that Philip
the 2nd would be born. During his youth, the young Macedonian heir had been held as
a political hostage, first by the Illyrians then by the Thebans. He would learn much from
his captives. In Thebes for instance Philip grew close to the commanders Epaminondas, Pammenes
and Pelopidas who introduced him to the latest developments in Greek political and military
matters. The ideas of deploying professional military forces like the Sacred Band and using
decisive mounted assaults to break numerically superior opponents would prove quite influential.
His mind would have been abuzz with possibilities. When Philip returned home in 364 BC, his brother,
Perdiccas III, gave him a portion of territory to govern. It appears that this early opportunity
may have allowed Philip to begin experimenting with some of his ideas. However this testing phase
would be short-lived when the crown was suddenly thrust upon Macedon’s heir following a disastrous
Illyrian campaign which killed Perdiccas and much of his army. The realm was now crippled, easy
prey for outsides and on the verge of collapse. Yet the 23 year old ruler was up to the
challenge. Philip immediately instituted a bold plan of reform to raise his country from
a backwater territory to a first rate power. This primarily involved modernizing the military
based on what he had learned while abroad. No longer would Macedonians fight as a mere
levy or rabble but as a paid professional force. To do so, reforms to recruitment were implemented
to swell the ranks of the infantry and cavalry. Soldiers now drew their salary from the crown,
wore uniforms, and pledged oaths to the king which increased their overall unity. The actual
composition of the armed forces also changed with the innovation of new sarissa pikemen who
carried smaller shields but much longer spears than their hoplite counterparts. By their
side would be additional infantry, cavalry, and skirmishing elements that worked together
in a novel combined arms doctrine. At the head of this newly built juggernaut would be the king
and his reformed companion cavalry. Let us now take a closer look at this leading unit which
was poised to take the ancient world by storm. We are told that at the beginning of Philip’s
reign there were 600 Companion Cavalry. These had not materialized out of thin air. Rather they
originated as the “Hetairoi”, or those near the king. This group represented an important social
function in the Macedonian culture where close, personal relations bound a ruler to his subjects.
Aristocrats within this inner circle regularly feasted with the ruler in symposia, advised
him on matters of state or military tactics, and accompanied him into battle as a bodyguard.
They were the backbone of the king’s power. It seems that Alexander the 1st had been the
first to select a subset of these to mount up as horsemen in a manner similar to the Achaemenid
system of “kinsmen”. When Philip came to power he called upon his own nobles from across Macedon
to answer the call to arms. They responded by organizing regionally into squadrons from
places like Bottiaia, Amphipolis, Anthemos, and Apollonia before uniting with
the crown at the capital of Pella. These troopers were heavy cavalrymen. Let us now
review their equipment. The most important item on the list would be their steed. These were of
excellent quality. The favorable climate and terrain of Macedon produced horses of hearty stock
with thick bones, strong muscles, and fine heads. Their abilities were further enhanced by
a long tradition of breeding and training. The royal stables were particularly renowned for their specimens which won several riding
and chariot races at the Olympic Games. Companions typically owned their own horses
and were likely rich enough to even have their own stables and employ their own attendants.
Those who were of lesser means however would be granted money from the crown upon enrollment
in the ranks so as to properly equip themselves. The horse’s back would be covered in a simple
cloth saddle for comfort of both man and horse. Remember that the adoption of the stirrup was
still centuries away. Riders would thus be expected to grip the horse with their thighs
and use training to minimize their bounce. A horse might also be adorned with
additional decorative elements such as animal pelts from lions or leopards
though this was likely reserved for royalty. Most Macedonian cavalrymen wore a
simple tunic with a pair of standard, open toed army boots. Companions likely stood out
a bit more than this owing to their high status. We know for instance that some wealthy
members sported shoes with gold detailing and later carried purple cloaks captured from the
Persians or styled in the eastern manner. On a more practical level though the companions stood
out as heavy troops who were issued a linothorax cuirass for extra protection though this might be
replaced with a muscled bronze cuirass. Helmets were also added. Early on these would have been
in the Phrygian style common to the region but would later be replaced by the superior Boeotian
model. Such helmets were made of a single piece, hammered over a mould, which greatly increased
their strength. Meanwhile their high dome helped cushion and deflect blows from above while
providing a sun and missile screen for the wearer who maintained excellent vision and hearing.
Crests might be added for command roles. Beyond this, speed would be the riders only defense as no
shields were carried. No explicit reason for this is given by our sources but it seems that this
was a consequence of their choice of weaponry. The primary offensive tool for a Companion was
a 3 to 4 meter long Xyston lance. The shaft was made from cornel wood prized for its elasticity
and hardness while both ends were tipped by an iron spear head. The spear could be used one
handed for stabbing or two handed as a lance. An additional strap helped keep the weapon under
control while riding or in combat. As a backup, a soldier would use either the dual edged Xiphos
sword or the curved, front weighted Kopis. When it comes to training, the Companion Cavalry
was whipped into shape by Philip along with the rest of the army. This was achieved through
constant exercise and drills, often in full gear with a heavy focus on discipline. Frequent reviews
were held to ensure all met the king’s standards. Any insubordination was not tolerated and would be
met with heavy punishment. For example we are told of how a man who abandoned a march to drop into
an inn was flogged while another was executed for removing his kit whilst ordered to remain under
arms. Yet it wasn’t all stick and no carrot. Positive reinforcement was also employed through
the introduction of prizes, awards, and promotions for good deeds. These helped encourage healthy
competition within the ranks which drove many to pull off daring feats in battle in the hopes
of winning rewards from their commanders. In addition to these army-wide practices, the
Companions would have had more specific training as riders. Much of this involved learning to
maintain control and balance on a horse under various conditions. For most Greek cavalry this
meant riding over rough ground, launching a few javelins, and closing the distance at a moderate
speed. However the Companions were different. They were true shock cavalry who skipped over the
ranged foreplay and charged straight into combat at full speed. Such an attack would have been
extremely dangerous in an era before stirrups and the couched lance. Companions therefore would
have trained exhaustingly to master the maneuver. Unfortunately the secrets to their
success are lost to the ages. In battle, the Companion Cavalry were
used to devastating effect by King Philip. Their preferred tactic was that of the hammer
and anvil. This combined arms approach involved the frontline pikemen pinning the enemy in place
while the cavalry fell upon their flank or rear. The assault was typically
carried out in a wedge formation. This leveraged the herd mentality of the horses
to form a highly flexible unit that could move nimbly across the battlefield, exploiting gaps
in enemy lines or punching holes through them. They would first prove their worth in the early
campaigns of Philip. War was first waged against the threats in his immediate vicinity. A resurgent
Macedon now pushed back the Paeonians, Thracians, and Athenians before confronting the Illyrians who
had killed their king just a few years earlier. At the Battle of Erigon Valley, the Macedonian
cavalry got their revenge by crushing an Illyrian flank which resulted in a decisive victory.
Next Philip drove south, involving himself in the affairs of Thessaly in the 350s BC and
ultimately coming to blows with the Phocians. At the battle of Crocus field, the Companions
once again helped crack the enemy ranks with a brutal hammer and anvil that saw 6,000 of
the foe killed and another 3,000 captured. Philip then used his army to consolidate
the lands to the north before returning his attention to Greece. This campaign climaxed
at the pivotal battle of Chaeronea in 338 BC. Traditional narratives hypothesize that it is here
a young prince Alexander led the Companion cavalry to defeat the Sacred Band of Thebes. However,
more recent scholarship has questioned the role of cavalry and posited that the move was achieved
by a group of infantry. Regardless, the battle ended with a Macedonian victory which placed
Philip at the head of the Corinthian League. The king was now in control of a huge
territory with enormous resources at his disposal. These would be turned
against the great enemy of the east, the Achaemenid Persian Empire. Clearly Philip
believed the Companions would play a pivotal role in the days ahead and tripled their strength from
a mere 600 troopers to a total of 1800. However before he could launch this ambitious campaign,
the King of Macedon was murdered by an assassin in 336 BC. His 20 year old son, Alexander
would now ascend to the throne and be the one to lead the charge against the Persians. The
Companion cavalry would be the tip of that spear. The unexpected death of Philip shook the Aegean
world and caused many to throw off the Macedonian yoke. Thebes, Athens, Thessaly, and the northern
tribes all threatened to rise in revolt. However the new king would meet the crisis head
on with bold, decisive action. Alexander moved first to eliminate rivals to the throne
before calling up his army and riding south. The Macedonians outmaneuvered the Thessalian
army which had arisen to stop them, prompting their surrender. Next he
rode to Corinth and humbled the Greeks with the speed and force of his advance.
The southern border was secure, for now. The Macedonians then rode
north to defeat the Thracians, Getae, and Illyrians in a whirlwind campaign. The
companions again proved their worth by applying shock tactics to win several victories
with few losses. Yet while these actions pacified the north, the southern cities
of Thebes and Athens rose up once more. Alexander descended upon them with a vengeful
fury, completely razing the City of Seven Gates and selling the survivors into slavery. The brutal
destruction of Thebes cowed the remaining Greeks who laid down their arms. Alexander had finally
consolidated his power. Now, the heir of Philip could finally pick up where his father had left
off and turn his attention to Persia. Thus in 334 BC, Alexander led a coalition force of some 35,000
soldiers and over 150 ships across the Hellespont. We are told by Diodorus Siculus that
1800 Companion Cavalry made the crossing under the overall command of
Philotas, son of Parmenion, while 1500 of their brethren remained behind under
the command of Antipater to secure the homefront. The advanced group was divided into 8 squadrons
or “ilai”, each commanded by an “ilarch”. Seven of the units numbered 200 strong
while the eighth, the Royal Squadron, was maintained at a double strength of 400.
This leading element, the “ile basilike”, was commanded by Black Cleitus, son of Dropidas,
and staffed by the most trusted and able members of the Macedonian cavalry. It was their duty
to protect the King in battle at all costs. They would do so on multiple occasions
throughout Alexander’s campaigns. For example at the Battle of Granicus, it was
the Companions who charged across the river without hesitation to flank the Persians. They
fought gallantly in a furious clash of arms. At one point Alexander himself was struck and
nearly killed were it not for the quick action of commander Cleitus who dismembered his Persian
assailant. Their brave distraction allowed the main body of the infantry to advance which soon
led to an enemy route. While Macedonian losses were light, these fell disproportionately on
the Companions who lost 25 of their comrades. In their honor, Alexander would order
the erection of brazen statues at Dium. A year and a half later when the Macedonians next
faced the entrenched Persian army at Issus it was the Companions who charged first across the river
under heavy fire. This spearhead pierced the enemy right, before twisting itself inwards, gutting the
foe, and striking for its heart. We are told that Alexander cut his way to within a spear’s throw
of King Darius who was now seized with panic and fled. Though the Achaemenid ruler’s retreat may
have saved his life but ultimately doomed his army which fell into a rout as news spread. In the
aftermath, the Macedonians would seize not just the Persian camp but also their western
domains from the Levant all the way to Egypt. Yet Alexander was not sated with these conquests
and in 331 BC drove eastward into Mesopotamia where he would be met once more by King Darius at
the Battle of Gaugamela. Here Alexander adopted an echeloned formation and pushed right to draw the
enemy away from prepared ground and overextend their flank. A fierce cavalry fight developed on
the wing which drew support from the center. At the opportune moment, with the Persian chariot
wave repulsed and their infantry committed, Alexander reformed his Companions into a massive
wedge for an attack. His Royal ile led the charge from the front with supporting infantry and
skirmishers following in their wake. As at Issus this spearhead was plunged directly into the
enemy center, seeking the Achaemenid King. Persian Kinsmen heavy cavalry, Apple Bearers,
and skirmishers attempted a defense but none could withstand the pressure as the eastern ranks
melted away. Once again Darius fled the field. Alexander and his companions initially gave
pursuit but were apparently called back to rescue the beleaguered Macedonian left. As the
Macedonians returned they slammed into a mass of fleeing Persians which resulted in some of
the hardest fought cavalry action of the day. Some 60 companions fell while Hephaistion and
several commanders were wounded. Soon however the enemy right completely dissolved
into a rout. The battle was over. Victory opened the road to Mesopotamia as Darius
fled yet further east. In short order Alexander took the great cities of Babylon, Susa, and
Persepolis. The troops were richly rewarded with praise, spoils, and rest. In addition their ranks
were replenished by reinforcements from Macedon. This was a great boon to the Companions who
had suffered quite heavy losses as the king’s shock troopers. Now their numbers exceeded
those at the start of the campaign. To deal with this expansion it seems that
the ilai were subdivided into two lochoi, each of which was commanded by a lochargos chosen
from amongst the unit by merit. These rejuvenated forces would prove invaluable in the months
ahead as Alexander set off in pursuit of Darius. However Alexander would again be denied his prize
when the Achaemenid king was betrayed and killed by the Bactrian Satrap Bessus. Undeterred the
Macedonians now set off to defeat the usurper, a campaign which would unfurl into a grand tour
of central asia. Along the way we are told that Alexander increasingly adopted eastern traditions,
much to the displeasure of his countrymen. This caused significant friction within the Macedonian
high command and even spawned assassination plots. Philotas son of Parmenion, supreme
commander of the Companion Cavalry was executed on suspicion of his involvement. A
wary Alexander then divided this powerful position into two hipparchies, each of which
commanded just four of the ilai. Yet as the nature of the
campaign continued to change there would be further reorganizations
of the army. The Companion Cavalry was swelled by new reinforcements and
units of the Macedonian light cavalry such that their numbers rose to an estimated 3600
men. These were then divided into approximately 8 hipparchies whose commanders were now chosen by
merit and trustworthiness rather than noble birth. These more flexible squadrons were often detached
from the main body for independent action. However they would famously regroup during
the Indian campaign to fight the Battle of the Hydaspes in 326 BC. Here the Companions
once more led the advance across a river and took up position on the right flank. In a lightning
strike they charged the unformed Indian cavalry in a devastating blow. Enemy reinforcements pulled
from the other side of the field attempted to salvage the situation but were also cut to pieces
by Macedonians emerging from the rear. Soon the infantry and elephants too became involved as the
battlefield devolved into one of the bloodiest actions of Alexander’s campaigns. Eventually
however the Companions broke through and completed an encirclement of the enemy army. The hammer and
anvil had once more proved the key to victory. Alexander wished to continue fighting to the ends
of the world but his battered army refused to march any further upon reaching the Hyphasis
river. Casualties for the Indian campaigns are hardly ever given but they must have
been heavy from battle, guerrilla fighting, and especially disease. It seems that
the Companions were particularly impacted as their eight hipparchies were reduced
to just four hipparchies. The ill fated march through the Gedrosian desert upon leaving
India must have further compounded these losses. By the time the Macedonians returned to Persepolis
in 324 BC they were in a sorry shape. In response Alexander sought to infuse them with renewed
energy. This was done by adding new eastern forces to his ranks. For instance 15,000 Persians
were trained to fight in the phalanx and the Companions were now joined by oriental riders
given Macedonian spears. However to placate the grumbling from his countrymen, a new 5th hipparchy
was formed with an exclusively Macedonian roster save for a few notable Iranians. It was to be
the most distinguished unit now referred to as a chiliarchy and commanded by none other than
Hephaistion. Some veterans however had had enough and mutinied once more at Opis. Eventually
the situation was resolved and many Macedonians were dismissed or discharged. Of those who went
home with Craterus we are told by Diodorus that there were some 1500 cavalry, most of which we
can reasonably assume must have been Companions. Soon Alexander would begin preparations for new,
ambitious campaigns. However his dreams would be cut short when he fell ill and died unexpectedly
in 323 BC at the age of just 32. According to ancient sources, when Alexander’s companions asked
him on his deathbed to whom he left the kingdom, he reportedly answered “to the strongest”.
Indeed Macedonian unity would now collapse as the vast realm was split between Successors who
vied for control of the Empire. In these matters, individuals who had previously served as officers
of the infantry and cavalry were now elevated to the status of kings. History however is less
clear about what happened to specific units such as the Companion cavalry which become lost
in the swirl of the period. Yet while the original force might have faded away, its memory would
not as many now sought to emulate the success of this heavy cavalry force which conquered
the world with its hammer and anvil tactics. We hope you’ve appreciated this deep
dive into the history of the Companion Cavalry. A huge thanks is owed to our supporters
on Patreon and the many talented researchers, writers, and artists who made this video
possible. A special thanks is owed to our friend from the channel Deuratus who did the
bulk of the heavy lifting for the script. Definitely check out his channel for more
animated history on the Macedonians. And as always let us know what units of history you
want to see covered next. Thanks for watching.
