Transcriber: Ivana Krivokuća
Reviewer: Mile Živković When I was a child, I remember playing outside
and out of my parents' sight for hours. The neighbors' kids,
my little brother and I, we would climb trees in the woods,
build hideouts, wade in the river, meet new friends, and only much later did it strike me
how much trust this must have required on my parents' side. Trust in the people we would meet,
trust in the older kids, but also trust in me. I often wondered whether and how
their trust possibly influenced me. Then I grew up, I became
a cognitive psychologist, and now I investigate the processes
that enable us humans to coordinate and cooperate with one another. And again I look at trust, and I noticed that trust really is
a key component in our social lives. I want to share insights with you,
insights from psychology, social neuroscience
and behavioral economics, to back up my three
favorite points about trust. That is that trust can be difficult. Trust is dynamic and most of all,
trust is indispensable. Especially when we don't know people well,
when we meet strangers for the first time, deciding whom to trust
really can be a challenge. Nonetheless, we humans make this decision
often within a few hundred milliseconds. But what do we base
this important decision on? Well, one cue we use to decide
whether or not to trust somebody is their faces, their facial features. Let me show you two examples. Whom of these two guys
would you rather trust? Who chooses the left one? Raise your hand. Who chooses the right one? A few. Yes. Your voting nicely reflects
findings from psychology showing that people
largely tend to agree on who does and who doesn't look trustworthy. It's areas around the eyes,
areas around the mouth that are relevant here. But is the guy on the left
really more trustworthy? No. So far, there is no concluding evidence that people with trustworthy faces
also behave in a more trustworthy manner. What else do we use? Well, when we meet people
for the first time, we look for signals
of authority, of competence. We tend to listen to and comply
much more with people who are, for instance, dressed like this,
than people who're dressed like this. You are all probably familiar
with the famous Milgram experiments, that were carried out in the 60s. In these experiments,
normal people, people like you and I, were invited to a laboratory, and they were asked to punish students
for not remembering words correctly. Punishment had to be administered
by means of electric shocks. Of course, in reality, students
didn't really receive these shocks, but participants certainly believed so. A surprising number of people,
of people like you and I, punished these students by administering
lethal, deadly electric stimulation. That is the critical point - they did so
especially when the instructor, the one who instructed them
to punish students, showed these tokens of authority
and competence, like a white lab coat. I think this shows that trusting others merely on the basis
of whether they seem competent or whether they seem to have authority can really have devastating consequences. Also, when we meet others
for the first time, we tend to listen a lot
to what others have to say about them. Their reputation. In fact, prior information
we have about somebody else can have such a strong influence
on our expectations that we entirely ignore
how this person really behaves. So we ignore somebody's
trustworthy behavior towards us when we already expect him or her
to be untrustworthy. These examples, I think, show
that these signals of trustworthiness - how somebody's face looks,
somebody's clothes, somebody's reputation - these signals of trustworthiness,
they aren't so trustworthy themselves. This makes deciding
whom to trust difficult, because we have to put an effort
into not trusting those who might not be
as trustworthy as they look, and equally important,
we have to make an effort to not deprive of our trust
those who deserve it, but might not quite look like it. So, we shouldn't judge
strangers too quickly. That was all about situations
in which we don't know others well. But even after we started an interaction,
we start a relationship with somebody, trust isn't something
we can just switch on. It is an inherently ongoing,
interactive and dynamic process. Psychologists and behavioral economists
have studied trust for many decades. They have used very simple paradigms in which trust is operationalized,
is measured as an investment. An investment of time, effort or money. I'll show you one very simple paradigm. In this paradigm, in this task,
you have two people: person A and person B;
let's call them Alice and Bella. They don't know each other, they are
merely connected via an internet platform. They might see each other's picture, and they enter a formalized,
a very simple interaction in which one of them, Alice,
has a certain amount of money. Let's say Alice has 100 euros, and she can now choose
how much she wants to invest in Bella. Let's say she chooses 60 euros. Now comes the critical part
of this paradigm: this amount is then tripled. So, Bella receives three times the amount
that Alice has entrusted her with. Now it's Bella's turn. Bella can decide how much she wants
to give back to reciprocate to Alice. If she chooses 90 euros,
then Bella is left with 90 euros, Alice has 130 euros. That means that if Alice trusts
and Bella reciprocates, both of them end up with more
than they had before. Both of them benefit. Especially when we have this interaction
continued for several rounds, this allows us to really look
at the development, the dynamics of trust, and of trust-based relationships. This has yielded
really interesting findings. For instance, in some people,
in some groups, trust declines quickly. Cooperation breaks down,
nobody wins, everybody's unhappy. By contrast, in other groups,
other people manage to establish stable, functioning,
mutually beneficial relationships. Everybody wins and everybody's happy. What's the difference?
What do those who succeed do differently? Well, one thing that those
who manage to establish long-term trust-based relationships
do differently is they forgive. I think in most relationships
there is a point where the other person does not behave
the way we expected her to. For instance, and this might be
a bit disappointing, because Bella didn't reciprocate
as much as Alice expected her to. This can be a misunderstanding,
it can be teasing, it can be an active breach of trust. In order for the cooperation
to not break down, Alice needs to do something. Alice needs to overcome
her uncertainty, even her anger, and give Bella a second chance. She needs to trust in,
invest in Bella again. Maybe not five times or six times,
but certainly once or twice. That is in fact what the groups
who manage to establish relationships that are mutually beneficial
do differently. On the side of the other person, Bella, there might be situations
when Bella notices, "Alice doesn't seem to trust me
that much anymore. Alice doesn't invest
that much in me anymore." There's also something that Bella can do. Bella can actively repair the relationship
by coaxing Alice back into trusting her. She can convince Alice to trust her again by reciprocating especially much,
for a few rounds. So, there is forgiving, there is
coaxing others back into trusting us, and how do we do that? There is a cognitive skill that is
really crucial for these behaviors, and that is perspective taking
or theory of mind. We need to take
the perspective of the other, put ourselves in the shoes of the other, so we need to think about what the other
wants, feels, plans, believes or knows. We can only forgive others
if we think about that, "Well, maybe there might be
different reasons why the other behaved the way she did." Also, for coaxing others
back into trusting us, we need to consider, "Well, yes,
maybe the other has lost trust in us." Not surprisingly do
new scientific findings show that brain areas that are involved in the process
of taking other's perspective are also really important
during trust-based interactions. So, taken together, trust is not something
we can just switch on. Trust is an inherently dynamic process. Saying "I trust you" or "Trust me"
is not the end of the story; it is really only the beginning. So far, it probably sounds to you as if trust is
a pretty effortful business. We need to overcome these
untrustworthy signals of trustworthiness that I talked about in the beginning, and we need to think about
what others are thinking about and it sounds all quite strenuous. But - and that is the last point -
it is really necessary. Trust is indispensable, and trust is not really something
that is just nice to have; it's not the cherry on the pie. I think that trust is the salt
in our social supper, really. If you think for a moment about these very simple interactions
I just showed you, but also if you think
about the interaction you have and the relationships you enter, and it becomes evident
that without an initial leap of faith, without trust, cooperations, interactions, trust-based relationships
could never be established. A very touching example
from the animal kingdom involves vampire bats. These little creatures
need to feed every night, or every second night at the latest, otherwise they starve. However, every night
up to 30% of them don't catch food. That would be quite tragic didn't they have specific mutual
friendships with other bats, in which food is shared. If one bat doesn't catch anything, she can go to her friend
and the friend regurgitates blood. That is pretty gross,
but that is a life saver. This favor is later reciprocated
when the other bat did not catch anything. Critical point is that
without an initial leap of faith, without an initial incident
of one bat sharing with the other, this life-saving reciprocal
interaction or relationship could never have been established. We need trust to establish relationships. What else? Another benefit of trust
is that we need trust to recognize signs of distrust. That sounds funny in the beginning. It seems though, and that is
what psychological research suggests, that people who tend
to trust others less - and that is symbolized by the woman
in the picture who doesn't expect anything good to come
from the guy with flowers - people who tend to expect
the worst from others are also less capable of recognizing
when others are hurt or huffed. They don't recognize signs of distrust,
and as a consequence, they're less capable, less willing
to repair relationships, to coax others back into trusting them. As a consequence of that, their cooperations
really break down more quickly. So, nice example
of a self-fulfilling prophecy. As odd as it sounds, we need to trust, we need to be trustful
to recognize distrust and then to repair relationships. The final point is
as simple as it is nice. We genuinely enjoy being trusted. When other people place trust in us,
this makes us feel good; it make us fell good about ourselves. And initial evidence
from new scientific studies shows that our brains
seem to inherently reward us for being trusted. That's not all. Closing the circle, if you will, our brains not only reward us
for being trusted, but also for being trustworthy. We genuinely enjoy
behaving in a trustworthy manner. We don't want to breach others' trust; we want to reciprocate,
to do right by others. The strong preferences
to be trusted and be trustworthy are deeply ingrained in us. Taken together, besides being
a difficult business sometimes, and besides being very dynamic,
trust is really indispensable. We need trust to establish, to maintain
and to repair relationships. Trust empowers us and we can
empower others by trusting them. This brings me back
to my initial example of my parents, and them letting me play outside
and out of their sight. Maybe inspired by the vampire bats,
they are dressed like vampires here, and that is quite a while ago. I think they allowed
for a lot of good things to happen by trusting me to play out of their sight. Meeting new kids, I could learn
that not everybody is as trustworthy or untrustworthy as they look, I could learn that maintaining
relationships takes a lot of forgiving and being forgiven. By trusting me I think they taught me
to trust others and trust myself. That is a pretty great gift that I hope
I can pass on to my children one day. Thank you. (Applause)
