The Christian army was utterly destroyed in
the Battle of Hattin, on July 4th, 1187. Saladin, the champion of Islam, moved to reduce
the remaining Christian holdings in the Holy land. In mere months, Acre ; Haifa ; Caesarea ; Jaffa
; Sidon, were in Muslim hands. In Jerusalem, Balian of Ibelin held out under
siege until October, when he surrendered the city. Christians native to the city were permitted
to stay, while the rest were escorted out, a testament to Saladin’s peaceful takeover. BUT… the well-fortified port of Tyre remained
in Christian hands. Aboard a Genoese ship, a certain Frankish
noble from northern Italy, Conrad of Montferrat, was just days from reaching Tyre. Successes against the armies of Frederick
Barbarossa brought him fame and prestige, while his personality and good looks made
him the darling of the court in Constantinople. Now, with most of the Holy Land lost and much
of the Crusader leadership dead or captured, by pure chance Conrad emerged as the principal
Christian leader in the Levant, upon his arrival in Tyre, in mid-July 1187. Across the Mediterranean Sea, worrrrd of the
disastrous turn of events reached Pope Urban III, who allegedly died from shock upon hearing
the news. Nine days later, on October 29th, 1187, his
successor, Pope Gregory VIII, issued the Papal bull Audita tremendi, which pushed for a renewed
crusade to retake Jerusalem… Despite the disastrous Second Crusade of the
1140s, the interest in the Levant region and in maintaining the Crusader States remained
stout and on the minds of many European rulers. Prince Richard, the future “Lionheart”,
took the cross prematurely, before the papal bull had even been issued. His father King Henry II of England and King
Philip II of France committed themselves to a new crusade on the urging of Joscelin, Archbishop
of Tyre, who had travelled to Europe from the Holy Land to ensure the two kings set
their differences aside and help the relief in the East. Philip d’Alsace, Count of Flanders, joined
the enterprise soon after. The three men agreed with Henry’s proposal
to introduce a massive levy for the crusade, dubbed the “Saladin Tithe”. By July 6th, 1189, however, King Henry II
died, leaving his son, newly-crowned King Richard I, to take up the responsibility of
leading the English contingent in the Third Crusade. In Mainz, the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick
Barbarossa also took the cross and committed the German people to the new crusade. Meanwhile in the Levant, Saladin released
Guy of Lusignan from captivity in the summer of 1188. As per the terms of his release, Guy agreed
not to take up arms against Saladin again, an oath he was quick to betray. He took his family and loyal followers up
to Tripoli, where Balian of Ibelin had taken the Christian refugees from Jerusalem. Back in Tyre, Conrad of Montferrat heavily
fortified the ancient city and successfully held out against a 7-month siege by Saladin’s
army. The Sultan, meanwhile, launched a campaign
into Syria, capturing city after city and fortress after fortress. Now in the summer of 1189, Guy collected the
troops from both Tripoli and Antioch, and led his new army south to Tyre. As the ruler of the Kingdom of Jerusalem,
which Tyre was a part of, Guy had expected to take up residence in the city, but Conrad
refused him entry. A fierce rivalry soon developed between the
two men. Stuck outside Tyre until August 1189, Guy
decided he could wait no longer. He turned his army and marched on Acre to
attempt to recapture the city and set up his base of operations there. With up to 700 knights and 9,000 levy infantry,
Guy advanced along the Scandelion Pass, a coastal road that kept away from the interior
where the lurking Saracen scouts kept a watchful eye. But the movements of the Crusaders WERE spotted
after all, and the information relayed to Saladin. Strangely, the Sultan hesitated. Encamped at Belfort Castle, a strong defensible
spot, he wondered if Guy’s movement was an elaborate ruse intended to lure him away
from this good position and render him vulnerable to attack from the north and south. The Crusaders eventually reached Acre. Over the coming days they were joined by other
contingents coming down the pass, as well as a Pisan force which chose to sail instead
of march. Guy and his main host encamped on the ancient
hill known as the Toron, climbing it by night to avoid detection. From the Toron, they had a clear view of the
city and the Acre plain below. The position was highly-defensible; the eastern
edge of the Toron dropped steeply, making Guy’s encampment immune from cavalry charges. Between the Toron and the city walls, Guy’s
main army encamped on August 28th, 1189, marking the start of the Siege of Acre. Upon learning of the siege, Saladin set out
from Belfort Castle with his army, calling for additional soldiers throughout his empire
to reinforce him. Men from Mosul, Sinjar, Diyar Bakr, and elsewhere
soon flocked to the Sultan’s banner. From his vantage point on the Toron, Guy watched
as Muslim reinforcements gradually came into view, and the Christian warriors prayed to
God to succor them. Saladin made his camp on August 30th at Tel
Kaysan, close to Acre. The Muslim left wing spread across the Belus
River, with the right wing stretching to Tel Al-Ayyadiyya. In front of the main ranks was a stationary
advance guard, whose orders were to harass the Crusader perimeter on a daily basis and
prevent anyone from escaping the encirclement. Guy’s army was now trapped between the defenders
of Acre and Saladin’s relief army. On September 1st, Guy launched an attack on
the walls of Acre before the bulk of Saladin’s army could arrive. Because his siege catapults were not yet complete,
Guy relied on his infantry to carry the assault. They rushed forward with ladders to scale
the city walls. From above the defenders shot arrows, hurled
rocks and other projectiles. The Christians pushed their way up and a fierce
melee broke out along the ramparts. The attack, however, was soon aborted after
messengers brought news of Saladin’s approaching main army. Fortunately for Guy, reinforcements were on
their way, and not just from Tyre. In mid-September, a fleet from the west carrying
Danes, Welsh, and Cornish arrived. Day later, a second fleet, led by the lord
of Condé and Guise, James of Avesnes was approaching. Fifty ships strong, it carried between 12,000
- 14,000 Flemings, Frisians, Germans, and Bretons. James took control of the Crusader army’s
field operations after his arrival, sometimes sharing the responsibility with Ludwig III,
landgrave of Thuringia. Near the end of the month, more reinforcements
arrived from Tyre led by Conrad and Gerardo, Bishop of Ravenna. So many Christian ships were now moored in
the bay and blockading Acre’s harbor that their masts reminded one Muslim observer of
“tangled thickets.” The Muslim leadership estimated the Crusader
force to be 2,000 horse and 30,000 foot. Saladin met with his war council and decided
it was time to test the strength of the Christians. On the morning of September 14th, the Sultan
launched an attack on the Christian lines. He hoped to punch a hole through the siegeworks
and drive on towards Acre. But the Crusaders stood firm and held back
the Muslim tide. Saladin’s cavalry, however, spotted a weakness
in the enemy line north of the city and reinforced the attack there. After an hour of desperate fighting the Christians
were driven back. However, they soon reformed their battered
lines, formed a shield wall mixed with crossbows and mounted lances, and regained the lost
ground. Two days into the fight, Saladin was unable
to break the Crusader siege lines. So he opted to extend his own lines to besiege
the besiegers. His cavalry screen opened a line of communications
and channel of supply with the city, but were unable to halt the steady stream of Christian
reinforcements arriving by sea at regular intervals. The heavy ships also bore with them timber
for the construction of heavy siege engines to batter Acre’s walls. More alarming news came to Saladin when he
learned that Holy Roman Emperor Frederick Barbarossa had reached Constantinople in August
with an army reportedly numbering 200,000 Crusaders. The Ayyubid Sultan sent letters to emirs and
caliphs throughout the length and breadth of the Muslim lands, begging for more troops
to counter this new Christian threat. To his despair, he failed to garner additional
support; worse, he found the fidelity of some of his vassals wavering. Several emirs left the Muslim camp to prepare
to defend their own homelands against Barbarossa. With their numbers and confidence bolstered,
the Crusaders under Guy opted to attack Saladin’s lines on the morning of Wednesday, October
4th, with the intent of reaching and destroying the Muslim camp at Tel Al-Ayyadiyya . The
attacking force was arranged in three lines of the left, right, and center, with archers
and crossbowmen in the first line, infantry in the second, and cavalry in the third. Conrad of Montferrat led the left wing of
mostly Italians along the coastline with Gerardo of Ravenna. The right wing extended to the Belus River
and was led by Guy. The cavalry on the right wing consisted of
Knights Hospitaller, with Italian and French foot and missile troops. The center was near the mosque of ‘Ain-Baqar,
outside the city walls, and was commanded by Andrew of Brienne and Ludwig III, sitting
in the rearguard with their knights. Templar Grand Master Gerard of Ridefort led
the center’s vanguard. Catalan and German foot soldiers stood in
front of the Templars. Remaining in camp as a check against sorties
from the Acre garrison was Guy’s brother, Geoffrey of Lusignan, accompanied by James
of Avesnes and his men. Opposing the Crusaders were the divisions
of Saladin’s army; on their extreme right wing was the Sultan’s nephew, Taqi al-Din. He and his men took position on the end of
the line by the sea. On the near right were Saladin’s sons al-Afdal
and al-Zahir. The rest of the right consisted of soldiers
from Mosul, led by the lord of Hisn Kayfa. The Muslim left wing was more diverse. On the far left near the Belus River was a
company from Asadiyya and the mamluks of Asad al-Din Shirkuh, Saladin’s deceased uncle. The near left had soldiers from Sinjar, led
by Mujahid al-Din Yarunqush, more mamluks, and soldiers commanded by Muzaffar al-Din. There were other groups of Kurds: Emir Mujalli
led the Mihrani and Hakkari Kurds, while others were commanded by their chiefs. Saladin rode in the center, accompanied by
his regular troops and a personal guard of military slaves. Each wing was protected by a thin line of
skirmishers. The battle began at 9:00 AM when the Crusaders
engaged the Muslim advance guard, quickly dispersing it; the Templars and Hospitallers
riding through the enemy infantry and missile ranks. Fighting bogged down for four hours. In the afternoon, matters shifted when the
Italians on the Crusader left wing managed to push forward into the Muslim right, and
Taqi al-Din ordered his soldiers to pull back, attempting a feint to lure the Crusader wing
away from the main army. Saladin saw his nephew retire and assumed
the worst, sending reinforcements from his own center to assist him. This was a critical error: upon seeing the
thinning ranks ahead of them, the Crusaders in the center and right moved ahead toward
Saladin’s position, hitting the Muslim line in the gap between the center and right wings. Crusader cavalry boldly charged between the
thinning Muslim ranks, and foot soldiers kept a steady pace behind the knights. Christian infantry and cavalry charged simultaneously,
crumbling the second enemy line. A general rout began, with the right flank
fleeing towards Tel al-Ayyadiyya. Those from the center made for either Qahwana,
across the bridge to Tiberias, or even Damascus. Those Muslims determined to stay in the fight,
were cut down - others were caught at their tents and killed there. At this critical moment in the battle, however,
the Crusaders who broke into the Muslim camp chose to loot the tents for booty, driven
by both greed and hunger. The looting brought a halt to the Crusader
charge and all momentum in the battle was lost. Saladin, meanwhile, accompanied by only a
few personal retainers, was busy trying to save his army, urging the mamluks and Kurds
on the left wing, to turn and join in the fight and trying to rally the fleeing remnants
of the center ranks. It was then that the Crusaders, busy feasting
and looting the enemy camp, spotted the Acre garrison finally joining the fight from the
city walls. All day, the battle had favored the Crusaders,
but their left wing was now fully sandwiched between the Acre garrison and Taqi al-Din’s
men. Saladin seized the opportunity, sending his
men forward into the disorganized enemy ranks. His left wing engaged, as did the rallied
remnants of the center. The looters were caught in the tents, while
those fleeing were caught from behind. As Saladin’s left wing rolled up the center,
the remaining Crusaders broke and were hurtled back towards Acre, with Muslim riders close
behind. Making matters worse, the Crusader left wing
eventually succumbed to pressure and retired to camp, allowing the Muslim right wing under
Taqi al-Din to turn and hit their flank in a pincer movement. It was a massacre. The battle had turned and the remaining Crusaders
fled back towards Acre in a chaotic mass, their enemies in close pursuit. Saladin’s men soon reached the outskirts
of the Crusader camp, nearly pushing on to its tents. But instead, the Muslims withdrew and eventually
retired from the field after Geoffrey of Lusignan’s reserve force arrived to bolster the shaken
Crusader ranks. Casualties in the October Battle of the Siege
of Acre vary depending on the source. However, it can be estimated that around 7,000
Muslim and 10,000 Crusader troops perished in the gruesome clash of October 4th, 1189. After their defeat, the Crusader leadership
ordered the troops to dig in for a prolonged siege, as there was little chance of quickly
breaking through either Saladin’s lines or Acre’s walls. The Crusader camp had received some breathing
room for expansion after Saladin’s army began rearranging itself behind them. Further sea reinforcements arrived at the
end of October, including numerous barons and 400 Danish warriors accompanied by the
nephew of King Canute VI. Crusaders now dug protective ditches on both
sides of their tents. They filled these with sharpened stakes and
metal running the length of the camp from the bay to the Mediterranean. These trenches were fronted by earthen ramparts
and wooden palisades. Then came the rain squalls and heavy mists,
heralding the coming of winter weather. As the year 1189 came to a close, nature brought
relief to the Muslims. The brusque winter, although not snowy, brought
with it winds strong enough to blow away tents atop the Toron. Worse, Christian ships could not remain anchored
due to the rough conditions. Most of the fleet thus left at the end of
October, or became fuel for campfires. But, the situation in the city was becoming
desperate. Cut off from supplies in the winter weather,
the starved and desperate garrison of Acre opened negotiations with the Crusaders. The terms were simple: they would capitulate
in exchange for their lives. Thissss, however, was foolishly declined by
the glory-seeking Crusaders. And, fortunately for the garrison, Ayyubid
reinforcements were en-route from the sea. The daring Armenian Muslim admiral Hossam
ad-Din Lulu, saw a chance to whisk men and supplies into Acre without worrying about
the heavy Crusader blockade. On December 17th, 1189, he led 50 Egyptian
galleys into the harbor, using Greek fire to brush aside the few Crusader ships that
engaged them. Acre’s garrison cheered at the site of the
arriving fleet. The stalemate ended on Easter Sunday, March
25th 1190, when a new Crusader fleet of fifty vessels from Tyre led by Conrad of Montferrat
appeared off the Mediterranean coast, tacking south towards Acre. Guy of Lusignan and Conrad had reconciled
their differences, and Conrad was on his way to support Guy’s siege camp. Before navigating past Acre’s port, Conrad’s
fleet was intercepted by Muslim ships. The naval battle lasted for better part of
the day, as Greek fire and volleys of arrows and bolts were exchanged. But the Christians managed to drive off the
Muslim fleet and deliver the badly-needed supplies and reinforcements to Guy’s camp. Fresh Crusader troops continued to pour in
throughout March and April, allowing Guy to stage surprise attacks that broke Saladin’s
supply lines and isolated Acre. The rainy days of spring soon turned into
the warm months of summer and the soggy ground dried out. The Crusaders constructed siege towers with
wood brought by Italian merchant ships. Four stories high and capable of holding up
to 500 men, these moveable towers loomed as high as the walls of Acre. They were covered with hides soaked in vinegar
and urine, which the Crusaders believed provided protection from the defenders’ Greek fire. The towers were ready by the end of April. The sight of the colossal contraptions struck
fear into the Acre garrison, who entered into a second negotiation with the Crusaders. Once again, though, the Crusaders refused,
believing their siege engines would win them the glorious victory they craved. On May 5th, 1190, the Crusaders renewed the
assault. As the massive towers rumbled forward, archers
on the platforms battled against the Muslim bowmen on the walls. Meanwhile, thousands of Christian peasant
soldiers and camp followers scurried to fill the city’s moat with rocks and fascines
of brush to allow the towers to pass over the ditch. Finally, the bridge from the first tower dropped
on the city parapet ! The Crusaders inside piled out onto the walls. But as they pushed their way further, a most
horrific sight unfolded behind them! The defenders loaded their artillery with
specially-mixed explosive jars of Greek fire and fired them at lumbering towers. All three towers caught fire. For a time the wood creaked ominously; before
one by one the towers crumbled, with everyone inside cruelly perishing in the flames. Those Crusaders who managed to storm the walls
from the first tower were subsequently cut down to a man and thrown off. The May 5th assault had failed miserably. Throughout June, the two armies clashed for
eight successive days, the heat baking the growing mounds of bodies piling around the
siege camp and walls. Thick black clouds of flies floated around
the dead, and disease gripped both Muslim and Christian camps alike. For nearly a month afterwards, little action
took place. Tired of the waiting game, Crusader men-at-arms
opted for another assault on St. James’ Day, July 25th. Their goal was to punch through the Muslim
lines north of Acre. The initial shock of the Crusader peasant
pikemen and axemen caught Saladin’s men off-guard, who seemed to have been slightly
out of formation. But this was a trap… As the pikemen pushed forward, Saladin’s
brother al-Adil lured the poorly trained Christian footmen into his camp. There, the attack gradually devolved into
plundering and looting of the Muslim tents. Saladin then sent Egyptian and Mosuli reinforcements
to trap the enemy in the camp. Worse, the Christian attack was poorly coordinated,
with only a few dozen knights joining the charge, led by Ralph de Hauterive, Archdeacon
of Colcester. Now the attacking contingent was at serious
risk of being wiped out. But Ralph and his armoured retinue of knights
managed to carve a path through the Muslim lines to escape, but the damage to the Crusader
ranks was terrible, as up to 9,000 fell in this failed attack, including Ralph himself. Three days later on July 28th, 10,000 Crusader
reinforcements arrived in camp under Henry of Champagne. Henry’s contingent was the vanguard of a
massive Frankish army en route to the Holy Land under King Philip II of France. By the fall of 1190, the English contingent
headed by Baldwin, Archbishop of Canterbury, landed and informed the besiegers that King
Richard I of England had embarked for the Holy Land. However, it would be some time before either
Philip or Richard arrived at Acre. Then, news reached Saladin that Holy Roman
Emperor Frederick Barbarossa had died on June 10th while crossing a shallow river near Armenia. Although leadership passed on to his son Frederick
of Swabia, the German contingent of the Crusader army fell apart. Many German nobles returned to Europe, and
the few that remained under the Duke of Swabia suffered from famine and became bogged down
battling Muslim Seljuk and Kurdish tribesmen. Only 5,000 survivors reached Tripoli, finally
moving to join the siege against Acre in October. Back at Acre, for several weeks, Henry of
Champagne attempted numerous assaults on the city using battering rams and scaling ladders. But Crusader fortunes worsened as Muslim sallies
from Acre’s gates destroyed Henry’s siege engines in early September. In the harbour , the Christian fleet launched
an attack of their own. Attempting to destroy the Muslim harbor defense,
on September 24th they sent explosive ramming vessels against the Tower of Flies. But just as the vessels were about to collide
with the tower, the winds abruptly shifted and the ships began colliding with each other. Amidst the chaos, a few small Muslim raiding
ships launched a sortie of their own. With thick black smoke engulfing the harbour,
they passed virtually unnoticed, their sights set on the heavily-fortified and specially-built
Pisan ship, which they proceeded to set ablaze unopposed. Once the Christians realised what was happening,
the Muslim sortie already turned and made their way back. Christian naval supremacy over Acre once again
ended with the early onset of cold weather. Throughout the winter of 1190 - 91, plague
and famine beset the Crusader camp. Intestinal fever took thousands of troops,
desperately huddled together in the frigid cold outside the walls of Acre. Henry of Champagne was afflicted, barely clinging
on to life. Frederick of Swabia became sick with malaria
and died on January 20th, 1191. Food supplies diminished rapidly by early
spring, with common soldiers getting by on scraps of grass or chewing bare bones. Crowds gathered to fight over scraps of dead
horses, with even the beasts’ entrails being eaten by the famished troops. Relief finally came to the Crusaders on April
20th, 1191, when King Philip of France landed with vital supplies of grain and corn, as
well as fresh soldiers and siege engines. King Richard of England was on his way to
Tyre seven weeks later, on June 8th, bringing 25 ships with him fresh from his conquest
of the Kingdom of Cyprus. On approach, he briefly engaged a Muslim fleet
sallying out of the harbor to intercept the incoming English reinforcements, but nevertheless
got through. Philip, eight years older than Richard, wanted
to lead the army based on his leadership experience in France against the English. He preferred to continue a slow, intricate
siege against Acre until it finally capitulated. The Crusader leadership, however, deferred
to Richard, nicknamed “the Lion-hearted”, who was reputed to be a fierce fighter, famed
for leading his men in close, hand-to-hand battles. Richard identified his target straight away:
The Cursed Tower. He had one trebuchet, nicknamed “Bad Neighbor”,
and a heavy catapult owned by the Knights Hospitallers, known as the “Stonethrower”,
aim for the Cursed Tower at the northeast corner of Acre’s walls. The rest of the artillery were ordered to
strike elsewhere. Bombardment began on June 14th. The Templars focused on the eastern walls
while the Duke of Burgundy’s catapults fired at the northern coastal fortifications. In time, Richard’s own siege artillery joined
in the endless bombardment, but both he and King Philip were sick and bedridden. Crusader war machines lobbed stones past the
walls into the city market. Hits from the Hospitaller artillery finally
demolished a 30-square foot section of the wall adjacent to the Cursed Tower. Late June consisted of light skirmishing outside
the city. Saladin’s advance guard probed the Crusader
rear defenses as the Christians continued pummeling Acre with stones. Muslim hopes for relieving the siege faded,
even as Saladin received needed reinforcements in his camp. Matters only worsened for the Muslim defenders
as the Christians began launching assaults on the walls starting on July 2nd. Richard organised round-the-clock attacks. Wave after wave of infantry, archers, and
artillery attempted to breach the city’s crumbling fortifications. Attempts to scale the walls failed. The gruelling operation came at an ever increasing
cost to men and material. But Richard was determined. Meanwhile, Philip’s sappers tunneled their
way towards the walls. Their aim was to reach the Cursed Tower. Meanwhile, the artillery bombardment collapsed
parts of the tower, which opened a gaping hole in the fortifications. Richard’s focused fire finally paying off. Committing any able-bodied man who could bear
arms to the breach , the Muslim defenders were barely able to fend off the attacking
Crusaders. Saladin launched his own attacks to relieve
the defenders in Acre. But despite fierce and prolong fighting, his
troops were but was unable to break through the ring of besiegers. Swimmers carried messages from the city to
the gathered emirs, pleading for help. A final appeal was sent out on July 7th. On July 11th, Philip’s sappers dug beneath
the partially collapsed Cursed Tower and successfully demolished the rest, further widening the
gap in the walls. By this point, Acre’s defenders were too
weak to man the breach. In desperation they used Greek fire, killing
40 Crusaders on July 11th – those were the last Christian casualties of the siege. With the night fast approaching, no one yet
knew that the Siege of Acre was over. As the sun rose over Acre on July 12th, 1191,
the siege entered its 653rd day. One of the longest sieges of the Middle Ages
at last drew to a close as the city’s defenders, against Saladin’s wishes, surrendered to
the Crusaders. Around 19,000 Christian troops had been killed
during the terrible siege, with the city’s garrison losing anywhere between 5 to 10,000
men and the relief army under Saladin also suffering terribly. The final savage act of the siege took place
after Acre’s capitulation. Richard the Lionheart ordered the execution
of 2,700 survivors of the Acre garrison, probably because Saladin had refused to pay 200,400
gold pieces for their ransom and declined to return the piece of the True Cross taken
at Hattin. By the end of the siege, the rift between
the Crusader leadership had widened. King Philip of France and Leopold of Austria
angrily returned to their homelands in Europe, taking their contingents with them. Richard took the exhausted yet victorious
Crusader army further into the Holy Land to continue his campaign against Saladin, setting
his sights on retaking Jerusalem. The Siege of Acre was but the first bloody
chapter of the Third Crusade. The Crusader victory at the Siege of Acre in
July, 1191, paved the way for their march on the city of Jerusalem. While King Richard the
Lionheart planned his next move, the Crusaders rested in the conquered city of Acre, which was
divided into military quarters administered by the Knights Templar, Knights Hospitaller, and
Knights Teutonic. Meanwhile, on August 20th, the captive Muslim prisoners of the city garrison
were all put to the sword on Richard’s orders. Eager to follow up the success at Acre with
an advance on Jerusalem, the English King led his forces on a long march towards the Holy
City in late August, aiming to first capture the important port of Jaffa on the Mediterranean
coast. Shadowing Richard’s knights was Saladin’s Ayyubid army, over 25,000 strong.
With Acre lost and the Crusaders having established a firm foothold in the middle
Levant, Saladin’s mission now was to ensure that Richard did not reach Jerusalem, lest
the city fall back into Christian hands. The Crusaders’ route of march presented Saladin
with an opportunity - one he was quick to seize. While the Crusaders marched
down the coastal road to Jaffa, Saladin would use his own numerical
superiority over the smaller Christian army to ambush them on the plains
north of the ruined castle of Arsuf. On the hot, humid afternoon of September 7th,
1191, the armies under two of the greatest generals of the Medieval era - Richard the
Lionheart and Saladin - would clash at the Battle of Arsuf. Hanging in the balance of this epic
engagement was the fate of the Third Crusade. With Acre now firmly under Christian rule, the Crusaders had a base from which to
launch operations deeper into the Levant. King Richard was meticulous in his planning for
the summer offensive, plotting out the route the Crusaders would take on their march
into Lower Palestine towards Jerusalem. There were two possible routes the Crusaders could
use, both of which had advantages and drawbacks: First, there was the inland route taking the army
from Acre to Nazareth and then on to Jerusalem. This would take them on a march through
rugged, broken terrain, where the roads ran through several valleys which Saladin could use as
chokepoints to cut off and ambush the Crusaders. Furthermore, Nazareth was a good twenty miles
from Acre, meaning the Crusaders would have to stretch a thin line of communications to link
their army back to the supply base at Acre. This would provide Saladin with an opportunity to disrupt Richard’s supply lines
and defeat his army piecemeal. The second route called for seizing key
ports in the Lower Palestine region, namely the city of Jaffa. By using the coastal
roads, the terrain would protect the mounted Crusader knights and their long baggage train.
After taking Jaffa, the Crusaders would drive on to the much-larger port of Ascalon, another
thirty miles to the south. Richard could then use these ports as springboards for a subsequent
push on Jerusalem itself. The anchorages would also permit direct supply lines for the
Crusaders for their eventual siege of Jerusalem. Finally, after much careful deliberation,
Richard decided to go with the second route. On August 25th, the Crusaders set out
from Acre onto the sandy plain of Haifa, bringing for the campaign 1,200 knights
and 10,000 men-at-arms and footmen. The Crusaders brought along their own rations
of water and food, as Saladin was likely to poison the wells and conduct a scorched
earth policy during the Christian march. To supply the troops on their 130km trek, a
Crusader fleet sailed southward three days earlier, keeping pace with the army. This way,
Richard could ferry troops and supplies from the fleet to the army along the coastal road.
The blistering summer heat during the day meant that the Crusaders had to move during the morning
hours and set up camp during the afternoon. All the while, Saladin’s army lurked
in the shadows of the easterly hills, watching the slow progress of the Crusaders and
waiting for the opportune moment to strike. Saladin would send raiding parties of about
twenty to thirty men down the hills to attack the Crusaders at key points on the march,
constantly harassing Richard’s troops and keeping them on edge. Many stragglers in the Rear
Guard were picked off and cut down, as well as 400 horses which were irreplaceable on the march.
For a brief time, the Crusader Rear Guard lost contact with the rest of the column, and it might
have been entirely cut off and annihilated if only Saladin’s son, Melek el-Afdal, had more men at his
disposal. By the time Saladin received el-Afdal’s message, it was too late, and the Christians in
the rear had managed to rejoin the main body. The Crusaders’ movement around the spur of Mount
Carmel was an arduous affair, slow in nature due to the difficulty of maintaining contact with
the naval forces off the coast, coupled with continued harassment by Muslim raiders. Yet
Richard continued to maintain his patience, methodically moving his men in the cool early
morning and resting them in the hot afternoon. Finally, the Crusader army marched
past Haifa, then around Mount Carmel, before halting at an area known
as the Casal of the Narrow Ways. From here, the Christians entered unfamiliar
territory as they moved into the Plain of Sharon, a marshland covered in dense vegetation. Muslim
scouts continued watching the Crusaders from the hills during their southward movement to Caesarea.
Meanwhile, the bulk of Saladin’s army encamped at Tell Kaimon. Despite suffering from severe
blisters on his lower body, the Sultan endured the pain to move between his scouting posts and the
main camp, keeping tabs on Crusader movements. When the Christians reached the outskirts
of Caesarea, Saladin opted not to attack, guided by patience and his desire to
wait for the best moment to attack. He was cautious, not wishing to
commit his entire army to the field until reinforcements had arrived
from his emirs throughout the Sultanate. Saladin remained indecisive for a few days as
the Crusaders marched into the empty ghost town that was Caesarea before moving on to a stream
three miles south called the River of the Dead. Skirmishing grew fiercer after leaving Caesearea,
and King Richard moved into the Middle Guard to oversee the defense of the formation.
Richard briefly halted his army to rest for three days, beginning on September 3rd, all the
while the Crusader fleet kept the men supplied. Meanwhile, Saladin’s army entered the Forest of
Arsuf, a large woodland stretching twelve miles north of the ruined fortress town of Arsuf.
Arsuf had been destroyed by Saladin during his conquests in 1187, and the broken citadel
remained standing, serving as a stark reminder of the Sultan’s campaign four years earlier.
While the Crusaders rested in their camp tents, Saladin spent the daylight hours of September 3rd
- 4th personally reconnoitering their position, searching for a suitable place to launch a
full-scale surprise attack. The Forest of Arsuf masked the Ayyubid presence while keeping
them at striking distance from the Christian army. It was here, at Arsuf, that Saladin finally
sensed the opportunity he had been waiting for. On the morning of September 5th, the Crusaders
packed their tents and moved out once more, stopping for the afternoon at Wadi al-Falik,
not too far from the ruins of Arsuf. Richard had his men pitch tents in a
plain situated between the shoreline and a vast marsh which shielded
the camp from a surprise attack. During the afternoon, Richard sent an envoy to
Saladin’s brother, Al-Adil Sayf ad-Din - commonly known to the Crusaders as “Safadin” -
asking to negotiate possible peace terms. Saladin, upon learning of this, ordered his
brother to stall the talks while reinforcements continued pouring into the Muslim camp, hoping to
buy time for his army to build up its strength. The next day, Safadin met with King Richard and
his envoys. During the talks, Richard demanded that the Muslims cede all their conquered lands
of Jerusalem back to Guy, which Safadin was outraged and indignant over. Before anything
could be made of the parlay, Safadin broke off the talks against the wishes of his brother.
Nevertheless, Saladin managed to arrange his army on the plains south of the Forest of
Arsuf. The Muslim army totaled 25,000. For several days, King Richard had been
anticipating a possible attack by Saladin. Thus, on the march for September 7th, 1191, he
rearranged his columns into five battle divisions. The Templars under Grand Master Robert de Sable
kept up the Vanguard, joined by a contingent of Turcopoles, native cavalrymen who were
lightly-armed, fast-moving, and trained to counter Muslim raiders. Behind the Vanguard of Templars
and Turcopoles were the Angevins - soldiers from Aquitaine - along with a contingent of Bretons;
the third division made up of soldiers from Poitou. These two divisions were under the
command of King Guy. The fourth division was made up of the English and Normans. Lastly,
the Knights Hospitallers and French brought up the rear in the fifth division, overseen by
Hospitaller Grand Master Garnier de Nablus. Richard and the Duke of Burgundy rode
along the full length of the march, urging the men to maintain compact ranks.
Saladin watched the Crusaders march by, allowing them to move several miles down the
road before he unleashed his offensive. Richard’s scouts alerted him that Saladin’s
army was possibly preparing for an assault. Suddenly, Bedouin and Nubian skirmishers emerged
and attacked the formation around mid-morning. To the sound of blazing trumpets and beating
kettle drums, the Muslim army rushed across the plain to engage the Crusaders.
The Battle of Arsuf had begun. Crusader knights and infantry braced themselves
for the heavy charge. Egyptian cavalry from Safadin’s division swooped down from the north and
attacked the French in the Rear Guard. Al-Afdal’s Syrian cavalry simultaneously pounded the French
line from the east. The Knights Hospitallers and their infantry support now suddenly found
themselves being assailed on two sides. The press of the Muslim attack soon became
unbearable for the Hospitallers and French. Muslim squadrons from the left division
simultaneously attacked the Crusaders’ Middle Guard in an effort to pin down the enemy and keep
them from reinforcing the French and Hospitallers. Saladin meanwhile moved up his household
Mamluk guard division into position behind al-Afdal’s men. The Mamluk heavy shock cavalry
would now be in place to exploit gaps carved through the Crusader line in order to
engage Richard’s armored knights. Footmen in the Crusader Rear Guard ferociously
fought tooth-and-nail to hold back the mounted Turkic archers. Crusader crossbowmen shot down
many of these light cavalry troops, but they were soon replaced by fresh horse archers so that the
French could not withstand the assault. Many of Saladin’s horse archers opted to dismount in order
to rapidly fire off more arrows from their light bows. As the battle dragged on, the Muslim bowmen
succeeded in killing many of the Hospitallers’ mounts, greatly frustrating the Knights.
Master Garnier de Nablus sent word to King Richard that their lines could not be
hemmed in any further. He insisted to the King that the Hospitallers should launch
a charge to break out of their ensnarement. But Richard would not relent to the
request. He was all too aware that if the Hospitaller knights broke formation,
it would spell disaster for the whole army. Despite coming under increased pressure, the
Crusader line continued inching its way south. Richard sensed the frustration of
the Muslim ranks at their inability to break through the Crusader lines.
Garnier soon grew angry with Richard’s refusal to permit a charge. He shouted over
the din of battle to the King, again requesting permission for a charge. Once again, Richard urged
patience. Still highly agitated, he returned to the Rear Guard to find his Hospitallers under even
greater stress than before, and his knights on the verge of mutiny. “Why do we not charge them at
full gallop?” they shouted at Master Garnier, to which he had no response.
The Muslims continued pressing the advantage against the Rear Guard. The
Christian foot soldiers grew exhausted from the relentless attacks. Gaps were opening
in their ranks as the casualties rose, and the mounted Hospitallers behind them were
coming under a hail of arrow fire as well. Around this time, Saladin began making
his presence felt on the battlefield, and his men fought with even
greater ferocity and determination, as the Sultan rode back and forth between
the lines, shouting words of encouragement. Just as some of the Egyptian cavalry
began turning the left flank of the French and Hospitaller line and got
into the rear of Richard’s army, Crusader infantry rushed up along the shore to
block their effort. Master Garnier again requested permission to launch a charge from Richard,
but once more the English King refused him. Richard informed the Hospitaller Grand Master
that he would signal a concerted charge by all the lines at the right moment, and not before
then. Richard sent word to his officers that the signal for an all-out charge would be
given by the blaring of six trumpet blasts. If the Hospitallers charged out on their own,
it would disrupt the line and cause chaos. Worse, charging too soon would give the Muslims
the chance to wheel about and counterattack. The moment HAD TO be precise, and Richard knew
this well. If timed right, the Muslim cavalry would be unable to withstand the charge of the
heavy knights mounted atop their armored steeds. As the Battle of Arsuf dragged on throughout the
morning, Master Garnier struggled to maintain the cohesion of his impatient Hospitallers.
They were angered at the loss of many of their horses and were eager for payback.
THEN, without orders, two mounted knights broke rank and charged. One was Hospitaller
Marshal, the other was Baldwin le Carron, a knight in Richard’s household retinue
who had joined the fight in the Rear Guard. It is likely they mistook two blasts from
a Muslim trumpet as the signal the start of the Christian counterattack. This, or
they simply charged on their own accord. On seeing his marshal ride out of formation,
Master Garnier gave the order for his Hospitaller knights to charge the Muslims, with some of
the nearby French knights joining the attack. Upon seeing the Hospitallers break formation,
Richard realized it was now or never, and gave the order for the rest of the army to join the attack,
save for his Anglo-Norman troopers, who remained in place guarding the Crusader standard. Richard
and his household cavalry smashed into the Ayyubid ranks with their lances and swords, as Richard
personally fought in the midst of the action. Meanwhile, the Crusader Vanguard led by
King Guy had reached a series of orchards in the northern outskirts of Arsuf.
Far away from the combat in the rear, the Templars in the Vanguard under Grand Master
Robert de Sable stood by, waiting for orders. It seemed to the Muslim leadership as though
the Crusaders had launched a well-coordinated attack. Saladin committed his Mamluk household
guard, attempting to keep the Crusaders from destroying his now-disorganized army.
The heavily-armored Mamluk cavalry were the only troops in Saladin’s army who could
stand against the mounted Christian knights, who were busy scattering the Muslim infantry.
Richard ordered his knights to halt after they moved close to the wooded hills beyond
the coastal plain, fearing that they would overextend themselves fighting into the ravines
and hills ahead and become ambushed and destroyed. Elsewhere, Saladin gathered his officers and with
a small company of bodyguards rode to redeploy on a tall hill near the edge of the forest.
His company’s drummers beat the signal for his men to rally around, while the Crusader
knights reformed once more and charged with their infantry to clear the battlefield of Muslim
stragglers and ensure the defeat of the enemy. The battle was over; it had ended in victory
for Richard the Lionheart and his Crusaders. The Crusader heavy cavalry charges had
successfully broken through the Muslim lines, but Saladin was able to reform his army and
withdraw to the safety of the Forest of Arsuf. Richard’s knights and footmen, exhausted from the morning-long battle,
were now free to move on to Arsuf. The Battle of Arsuf had proven that Richard could
defeat Saladin in a pitched battle; however, the fact that Saladin’s army remained intact
meant that the Christian victory was not complete. The Crusader cavalry losses were minor, but
the foot infantry had suffered around 700 casualties in the battle. It is estimated that the
Muslims lost around 7,000 men during the battle. In the end, Richard’s tactical victory
at Arsuf was void of strategic results, as he resumed his march on Jaffa, and Saladin’s
army limped away from Arsuf, beaten but still intact. The Crusaders proceeded to capture
that strategic port city later in the month. With the campaigning season of 1191 soon coming
to a close, however, it seemed as though the drive on Jerusalem would have to wait until the next
year. During the fall and winter of 1191 - 92, the opening of possible peace talks
or a truce between Richard and Saladin would mark the beginning of the end of the
Third Crusade. Nevertheless, Arsuf played a key role in damaging Saladin’s reputation gained
at Hattin four years earlier, and helped cement the legacy of Richard the Lionheart as one of
the great generals of the Medieval era. It is midsummer 1192. Almost a year has passed since Richard the
Lionheart’s crusading army defeated the Muslim forces under Saladin at Arsuf and seized
the important costal town of Jaffa. The passing months have witnessed two separate
advances on Jerusalem. However, both operations have stalled due
to inadequate numbers, insecure supply lines, and the emergence of bitter rivalries within
the Christian camp. Although Richard’s tactical successes have
effectively hamstrung Saladin’s ability to take the initiative, the Lionheart cannot
overcome the latent geographical and strategic advantages held by his Muslim foe. With ever-more reliable evidence that King
Philip Augustus of France and his brother John are plotting to take his Angevin holdings,
Richard is convinced it is time for him to return home. He concentrates his forces at Acre and awaits
favorable winds to take him west, confident of his enemy’s supineness. Little does he suspect that Saladin, desperate
to regain lost prestige, has gathered his emirs for one final offensive, hoping to land
a decisive blow that will drive these foreign warriors from the Levant forever… The Crusaders’ twin victories at Acre and
Arsuf in 1191 had put Saladin firmly on the defensive. The former conflict had resulted in the considerable
loss of materiel, elite troops, and the entirety of his Egyptian fleet. Although Muslims had suffered fewer casualties
at Arsuf, Saladin’s inability to stop Richard’s southward march towards Jaffa had caused him
to lose face among his emirs. To make matters worse, the sultan fell seriously
ill, depriving him of the trademark charisma which had helped keep his army together. For his part, Richard was becoming ever more
aware of the deep-rooted factionalism within the Crusader states AND his army, an environment
that seriously threatened the integrity of his own multinational force and his mission. He soon realized that only sustained, offensive
operations would keep this turmoil at bay. Yet this was a risky strategy: Richard could
ill afford to suffer any setback given the outnumbered position of the Crusaders in the
Levant. Moreover, any movement would either require
extensive logistical support from a region ill suited to supply it , or, be supplied
from abroad at potentially prohibitive costs . All the while, disunity among the Crusader
states would further complicate the supply chain. Unsurprisingly , both leaders started looking
for a quick-decisive campaign that would deal a knockout punch and force the other to a
negotiated settlement. Richard was quick to seize the initiative. Jaffa fell without a struggle on September
10th a mere three days after the battle of Arsuf, and immediately began reconstructing
the town walls and dry moat. Securing this vital port, the closest to Jerusalem,
presented Richard with two alternatives: to continue down the coast towards Ascalon and
Darum, threatening Saladin’s strategic base in Egypt, or to push inland towards the Holy
City itself. Unable to defend against both options, Saladin
razed Ascalon’s defenses and expelled its inhabitants, leaving only a covering force
under one of his sons, al-Afdal, in the vicinity. With dissident emirs and their levies departing
every day, the sultan was forced to retain a mere handful of defenders at Darum and other
fortified positions in the south and concentrated his personal retinue at Jerusalem. In blocking the land routes to Egypt, Saladin
correctly understood Richard’s intentions. By October 1191, the English king concluded
that an Egyptian campaign would exert the most pressure on Saladin. As a vast source of wealth and highly trained
troops, Egypt was THE BACKBONE of Saladin’s war effort. Thus, Richard began contracting with Pisan
and Genoese captains to assemble a fleet at Acre. Neither group, however, was willing to risk
their ships this close to the end of the sailing season. Worse, the powerful French faction in Richard’s
army, under Hugh of Burgundy, saw Egypt as an irrelevant objective and refused to join
the campaign. Their sole aim was Jerusalem. On the other hand, Robert de Sablé, Grand
Master of the Templars, and Garnier de Naples, Grand Master of the Hospitallers, urged Richard
to quickly decide on the next course of action and press the advantage gained at Acre and
Arsuf. But Richard, against his better judgement,
delayed the offensive on Egypt until the following summer. And to pacify the French and keep his army
intact, he decided to march inland towards Jerusalem. Crusader morale stayed at a high level into
the fall, yet the king moved with some misgivings. Rumors had reached him that Philip Augustus,
his one-time fellow Crusader, had begun plotting to conquer his Angevin domains back home. It was at this point that the English king
opened negotiations with Saladin. The sultan, his forces considerably reduced
and demoralized, was eager to listen and to extend counterproposals, although no agreement
was reached. The Crusaders’ progress was steady and the
town of Ramla, 20 km from Jaffa, fell on November 17th. Over the next month, however, daily skirmishes
became more intense. Few casualties resulted from these attacks,
but they exhausted the Crusader force and the advance slowed to a crawl. Increasingly cold and rainy weather did not
help the mood either. By Christmas 1191, Richard’s forces were
not even halfway towards Jerusalem. With internal tensions rising to a peak, Richard
stopped at Bayt Nuba and held a council of war. The Grand Masters of both orders urged Richard
to consider the vulnerability of his position and withdraw, while the French faction again
demanded a further advance on Jerusalem. At the conclusion of Christmas festivities
on January 8th, 1192, Richard ordered a retreat, framing the movement as a positive one towards
Ascalon to diminish the deleterious effect on his army’s morale. The unprotected town fell quickly, however
Richard’s decision to refortify it in anticipation of his Egyptian offensive would ultimately
prove to be the sticking point in negotiations for the next eight months. After this, there was little military activity
until spring, although neither commander would enjoy the respite. Saladin failed to embark on a winter campaign
for the first time in four years as a result of growing opposition from his northern emirs
in the Jazira. Richard spent much of that time strengthening
Jaffa’s defenses - a decision that would pay significant dividends in the near future! In late April 1192, Richard received news
from the Prior of Hereford that his brother John had overthrown Longchamps, the Lionheart’s
chancellor and designated regent, and was now ruling England in Richard’s name. Increasingly desperate to resolve matters
in the East and return home, the king concentrated his forces at Jaffa. Saladin, aware that he still lacked the force
necessary to stop the Crusaders, and assuming the Holy City was still the target, poisoned
or filled-in the wells on the approaches to Jerusalem. He also dispatched first his younger son,
al-Afdal, and later, his trusted brother, al-Adil north to bring the Jazira into line. News of the sultan’s weakness and the departure
of his lieutenants soon reached the Crusader camp, and Richard hastened onward, capturing
the key post of Darum following a five day siege on May 23rd. Darum’s fall meant that Richard now held
the last major fortress on the way to Egypt. Saladin’s strategic base was now seriously
threatened. Once again Richard was presented with the
choice, Egypt or Jerusalem. Again, discussions flared up on what the best
means to bring Saladin to the negotiating table were, and once again his army was bitterly
divided. In the absence of any firm response from Saladin,
who had pressed him vigorously all last summer, and with good sailing weather for five more
months at least, striking Egypt was the logical choice. But Richard chose to press on… towards Jerusalem. This time his army moved more quickly, crossing
territory that had taken them months in a matter of days. Even the king’s falling ill could not slow
them and the army encamped at Bayt Nuba in early June. A few days later, while out hunting, the Lionheart
saw the distant walls of Jerusalem, but once again, Crusader momentum slowed down. Overstretched supply lines from Jaffa and
the growing recognition that he lacked both manpower and equipment for a full-blown siege
weighed heavily on Richard. The approach of St. John’s Day, the 24th,
traditionally marked the beginning of the dry season in Palestine. With Saladin’s successful blocking up of
wells and cisterns, Richard’s nearest water supply would be two miles away from the city
itself. A simple assault on the Holy City, urged by
the French knights, would result in casualties he could ill afford, but he was running short
of other decisive options. On June 23rd, having received word from Bedouin
spies that a large caravan was approaching Jerusalem from Egypt, Richard led a surprise
assault, taking an abundance of food, baggage horses, and camels. The survivors fled into the city, further
depressing morale throughout the Muslim army. On July 1st, in extremity, and with many of
his emirs fearful of meeting the same fate as the defenders of Acre, Saladin called a
council of war that lasted for three days. Here his charisma won out: taking personal
command of the army he led it outside Jerusalem’s walls for one final showdown with Richard. To his amazement, however, as his army moved
towards Bayt Nuba, there were no signs of the Crusader army! Richard had chosen to abandon his assault
on the Holy City once more and was pulling back towards Ramla. Saladin could not believe his good fortune. As the Crusader army retreated, its cohesion
quickly disintegrated; French knights moved north towards Caesarea, while the English
king went first to Jaffa, where he left a small force of weak and wounded soldiers,
and thence marched to Acre, along the same coastal road he had traveled the year before. “Do not be deceived by my withdrawal.
The ram backs away in order to butt.”
Richard to Saladin Richard hoped to mask the gravity of the situation
by reopening negotiations with a stern tone, lest Saladin realize the Crusaders were retreating. The bluff worked. But the sultan, for his part, used Ascalon’s
fortifications as a means of prolonging negotiations, while quietly gathering reinforcements from
Egypt and expecting additional troops to arrive from the now-pacified Jazira. Although his army of 7-10.000 was now considerably
larger than his enemy’s, Saladin remained at Bayt Nuba, biding his time. The moment he arrived in Acre on July 26th,
Richard gathered a fleet of three dozen galleys. Sending a portion north to Beirut, that evening
he asked both Grand Masters’ public blessing for a future voyage. Word quickly reached Saladin who believed
all signs pointed to Richard departing for home and decided to strike quickly. All that evening and through the night, his
men moved, coming before the walls of Jaffa early on the morning of July 27th. Since the Muslim army, composed of a large
Arab and Bedouin cavalry core, with a small, armored elite of Kurdish and Turkish mamluks,
was ill-suited to siege operations, Saladin ordered an immediate assault on the town. The small Christian garrison was surprised. The sultan’s men, motivated by prospects
of a quick victory, pressed the defenders. But Richard’s fortifications proved their
worth, and the Muslims were beaten back. More importantly, the garrison was able to
send word to Richard, beseeching his assistance. Over the next three days, the Christians prayed
for their deliverance while the frustrated Saladin brought up six siege engines to hasten
their fall. By July 31st, these machines had shattered
Jaffa’s eastern gate and surrounding wall. FORWARD!, shouted Saladin, spearheading the
attack ahead of the elite Mamluks. A Christian soldier observed the dust shaking
on the stone walls as the sultan’s charge thundered towards the city. Muslim cavalry swarmed the breach, overwhelming
the defenders. Unable to hold their position, the Christians
broke into smaller formations, fighting on the back foot as the battle moved into the
streets. After an hour of fierce fighting, however,
the Christians were driven off. Those fortunate enough ran to take refuge
in the citadel. Others, however, were caught up in the brutal
sack of the town. The assault completely shattered the nerves
of Aubrey de Reims, commander of Jaffa’s defenses, but the Christian cause was saved
by the actions of Ralph, newly ordained bishop of Bethlehem. With consummate skill, the prelate negotiated
a brief truce with Saladin, to expire at the ninth hour of the following day. If Richard could not relieve Jaffa by then,
all would be lost. But what of the king? When news of Saladin’s assault reached Acre
by the morning of the 28th the king immediately sent criers through the streets summoning
all available men to this desperate relief expedition. All but the French answered the summons. That same day, a detachment of Templars and
Hospitallers set out overland, while Richard boarded his royal ship, the Trenchemere, and,
accompanied by 6 other galleys, headed south with favorable winds. Unfortunately for the Crusaders, Fate and
Saladin had other plans. The sultan, anticipating Richard’s relief
effort, had erected a number of roadblocks for ambushes that stopped the Military Orders
just beyond Caesarea. Then, after one day at sea, the wind died
down, leaving Richard’s galleys stranded near Haifa, faced with the insurmountable
task of rowing the rest of the way. Fervent prayers went unanswered for three
days until, on the morning of the 31st, the winds rose once more. Urging his men to greater efforts, Richard
and two other galleys outpaced the others, reaching Jaffa by the dead of night. But had he arrived in time? The early morning light of August 1st revealed
Muslim banners along the walls as far as the eye could see. Making matters worse, soldiers encamped on
the beach began opening fire to prevent a landing. Richard’s heart must have sank in despair. Suddenly! A priest from the citadel
leapt from the wall to the sands below. Miraculously avoiding the Muslim soldiers,
he ran to the shore and swam out to Richard’s ship. Some time later, he climbed onboard. Haltingly, he told Richard of the remnants
of the Christian garrison holding out in the citadel, and of the truce that would expire
in a few hours. The news was ELECTRIC: Richard, still only
partially armored, immediately ordered his galleys towards shore. The moment they grounded, Richard grabbed
a crossbow and jumped off into waist-deep water, followed by his entourage. As the astonished Muslims watched, Richard
shot his bolt, drew his sword, and charged. The heavily armored Crusaders pierced right
through the thick formation of Muslim warriors. Though only a small group disembarked with
Richard, their swords and lances cleared the way for the others who reached the shore. Startled at the Lionheart’s audacity, Saladin’s
men turned and fled from the beach into Jaffa, with the enemy right on their heels. The battle carried over to the city, as more
and more Crusaders rushed up the beach to join the attack, inspired by Richard’s bravery. Back at the Citadel, the Christian could hear
the unexpected battle taking place. Then! the sight of the king’s lion standard flying
from the outer walls gave new hope. As the fighting grew more intense and spread
deeper into the streets, the defenders within the citadel steeled themselves, before pouring
out from their refuge. The immediate goal was to link up with Richard’s
host. However, Saladin’s men fought fiercely,
managing to slow down the spearhead of the Christian attack. Swarmed by Muslim warriors, Richard’s contingent
suffered losses as they grinded their way towards the citadel. Some groups in his entourage got separated
in the chaos, as Saladin’s men relentlessly tried to stem the tide. But the Christian forces DID eventually join. A renewed push was on! Together, they threw the Muslim army into
confusion, overwhelming them piece meal in the streets. What was a fierce battle a few moments ago,
turned into a rout. The sultan, just rising in his tent, could
do nothing. His entire encampment was completely swept
up in the panic, as the troops tried to escape being trapped. Gradually, the Muslim army spilled out of
the city and order would not be restored for a couple of hours, until they reached Yazzur,
a few kilometers away. As daylight waned, both armies endured a sleepless
night. Men repaired their equipment, collected weapons
from the fallen, and made preparations for the fight on the morrow. That same evening, Saladin was furious in
his camp. Richard’s unexpected appearance had stunned
him, and he DEMANDED an effective response from his lieutenants. A brilliant commander himself, Saladin was
aware that he still greatly outnumbered the Christian army and, sensing an insurmountable
setback in morale should he order a retreat, the sultan knew that he had to attempt a counterattack. The sooner the better, while Richard was still
disorganized and the defenders of Jaffa still weakened. Collecting his forces over the next two days,
he planned an operation that would feature both stealth and power. Richard anticipated that Saladin would strike
again and responded with both careful planning and bravado. Despite suffering from bouts of fever, he
divided his time between repairing the breach alongside his men and hosting a few of Saladin’s
emirs, bragging about his plans to stay in the Holy Land through next Easter! Richard also welcomed reinforcements under
Count Henry of Champagne, accompanied by Hospitallers and Templars, and a few horses from Caesarea. By nightfall on August 4th, Richard could
count on 55 knights and 15 horses of indifferent quality, and about 2-3.000 doughty Genose
and Pisan bowmen. He confidently marched out and encamped with
some knights outside Jaffa, on the same ground as Saladin the week before. Around midnight, members of Saladin’s bodyguard
made their way towards the Christian camp, intending to kidnap Richard. This was the first part of the sultan’s
plan, to be followed by a diversionary thrust on Jaffa, while the main assault would eliminate
the leaderless Christians in the field. As fate would have it, a Genoese archer, walking
outside the camp early on August 5th saw the glittering of helmets from Saladin’s guard
who had evidently gotten cold feet. He ran back into the camp, shouting a warning. Quickly roused, Richard threw on his mail
shirt and prepared for action. With his left bolstered by the fortified Church
of St. Nicholas and his right looping around to Jaffa’s walls, Richard proposed an active
defense, relying on his crossbowmen, whom he stationed in pairs, one loading, one firing
at all times. Protecting them in front were footmen, with
lances, fixed into the ground at an angle, and holding a buckler to deflect arrows. Scattered tent pegs, half-buried, were emplaced
to slow down the expected assault. Richard himself, with a handful of knights
on horseback, formed a mobile reserve. As the enemy made ready, he addressed his
men: “Adversities reveal virtues, just as prosperity
hides them. Besides, there is nowhere to run….so you
must stand firm…. True men should either triumph courageously
or die gloriously.” The Muslim army, confident in their large
numbers poured against the Christian ranks. But they lacked the usual coordinated movements
and struck without sophistication. Wave after wave halted at the line of lances,
and retreated before the crossbowmen’s deadly barrage. As at Arsuf, Richard had a sixth sense for
rushing up and down the line, appearing at every critical moment. The Christian discipline held firm. Not a single feigned withdrawal could bait
them into charging their foe. By 3 pm, with the heat of mid-day beginning
to ease, Richard gave the order for the crossbowmen to advance beyond their defensive shields
and ordered his reserve to join him in a powerful charge. “He was like a giant in battle” wrote
one chronicler—“His body was like brass unyielding to any sort of weapon. His right hand brandished his sword with rapid
strokes, slicing through the charging enemy, cutting them in two as he met them.” Muslim morale gave way amidst the onslaught
and Saladin watched his army melt slowly away once more. All but a few: for as Richard and his handful
of knights reined in their mounts, a great shouting could be heard from Jaffa. Some of their compatriots, exhausted by the
continuous assaults, had left their posts and fled to the safety of the galleys. Muslim contingents took advantage of their
departure to infiltrate Jaffa once more, hoping to instill a new confidence in their side. With seeming inexhaustible energy, Richard
called to himself a handful of knights, men-at-arms, and crossbowmen. After driving the cowards back from the galleys
and setting up an armed guard to discourage further cowardice, the king rode into Jaffa,
precipitating a swift Saracen withdrawal. That evening, both rulers counted the cost
of the battle. The Muslims had lost 700 dead and 1500 horses,
many of whom were left on the field of battle; the Crusaders suffered a mere 2 deaths and
an unspecified number of wounded. Hoping to maintain the illusion of power,
Saladin sent word to Richard that he still intended to take both the king and the town. Richard, seriously ill from his exertions
of the past few days, issued a defiant response. Nevertheless both leaders and their armies
were so thoroughly exhausted that negotiations began anew. On September 3rd, a truce was reached. Hostilities would be suspended for three years. The Christians ceded Ascalon and Darum and
recognized Acre as the new capital of the Holy Land. Jerusalem was left in Muslim hands. In return, Saladin gave his word to protect
all Christian pilgrims to Jerusalem. By September 5th, large portions of the Muslim
army started disbanding while others demolished Ascalon’s fortifications under Crusader
oversight. The following day, Richard rode north to Acre. On October 9th, he set sail for home…or
so he thought. The truce endured for several reasons. Richard’s capture of Cyprus with its abundant
food supply gave Crusading kingdoms little incentive to push beyond their thin coastal
strip. For the Muslims, the moral energy generated
by Saladin when he declared a jihad in 1187 was simply exhausted. Moreover, the sultan’s sudden death in March
1193 fractured his kingdom, with one son, al-Aziz, governing in Egypt, and another,
al-Afdal, controlling Syria. The subsequent infighting was not resolved
until the Mongol invasions of the 1250s, which threatened the Near East more than the Crusaders
ever did. Only a renewed spirit of jihad would push
back these intruders at Ain Jalut and then proceed to dismantle the remaining Crusader
kingdoms. On a personal level, the Third Crusade provides
us with two leaders who, for all their cultural differences, came to power in an atmosphere
of religious zealotry and intense, back-stabbing politics. That they were able to transcend these conditions
and treat each other as men of honor, even chivalrously, is remarkable. For lovers of military history around the
world, Acre, Arsuf, and Jaffa cemented King Richard’s reputation as the epitome of a
courageous ruler and a charismatic warrior, just as Saladin’s victory at Hattin and
the conquest of the imposing fortresses of the Holy Land affirmed him as one of the Greatest
Leaders in the Muslim world. While other rulers shied away from a prolonged
war, Richard and Saladin remained committed. Yet, where others single-mindedly pursued
obsolete strategic goals, the English King and the Ayyubid Sultan were capable of understanding
the complications of holding the Holy City and sought creative ways to win a more lasting
peace in Palestine. It is with indomitable spirit, capable of
triumphing in challenging conditions and against incredible odds, that these two men had rightfully
earned their place in history. Their legacy endures to this day. Thank you for staying until the end of the
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