In the 13th century BC, a monumental clash unfolded at the Orontes River, near the historic site of Kadesh, located along the present-day border of Lebanon and Syria. This battle saw the mighty Egyptian Empire, commanded by the legendary Ramesses II, face off against the formidable forces of the Hittite Empire, led by Muwatalli II. The Battle of Kadesh, occurring around May 1274 BC according to Egyptian records, stands out as the earliest large-scale combat documented in detail, offering insights into the tactics and formations of the time. It’s noted for being the largest conflict involving chariots, with an astounding 5,000 to 6,000 chariots engaged.
Between 1400 and 1300 BC, Egyptian military actions in southern Canaan reflected the region's instability, with Egypt losing control of northern Syrian territories to the Mitanni during the reigns of Thutmose IV and Amenhotep III. This decline in Egyptian power is noted in the Amarna letters from the late Eighteenth Dynasty. However, Horemheb's rule marked a resurgence in Egyptian military initiatives, aiming to reassert control over the area.
This endeavor was further advanced during the Nineteenth Dynasty, particularly under Seti I, who aimed to restore Egypt's former glory. Seti I's campaigns across Canaan and Syria, including the reoccupation of abandoned positions and the capture of Kadesh and the Amurru kingdom, signify a strategic effort to reclaim lost territories and fortify Egypt's influence. His son, Ramesses II, also played a significant role in these military pursuits, notably preparing for the significant Kadesh expedition. Before the battle of Kadesh, Ramesses II initiated military campaigns into Canaan and then into Syria, with intentions that ranged from reclaiming the region of Amurru to verifying the loyalty of his vassals and identifying potential battlegrounds. By May 1274 BC, he led a significant force from Pi-Ramesses towards Gaza, passing the fortress of Tjel. This campaign, aimed at regaining Amurru, motivated the Hittite ruler, Muwatalli II, to confront the Egyptians, culminating in the battle at Kadesh. Ramesses's tactical organization for Kadesh featured his army split into four divisions, each named after an Egyptian deity: Amun, Ra, Seth, and the newly formed Ptah division. Also involved were the Ne’arin, possibly Canaanite mercenaries or Egyptian troops stationed in Amurru, and the Sherden mercenaries, who made their debut in the Egyptian army during this battle. The Sherden's participation is notable as they would eventually be recognized as part of the Sea Peoples, significantly impacting the late Bronze Age's geopolitical landscape. The Egyptian chariot force, an essential element of Ramesses’ military might, is difficult to quantify precisely. However, estimates suggest that no fewer than 2,000 chariots were distributed across the divisions of Amun, Ra, Ptah, and Seth, with approximately 500 chariots per division. On the opposing side, King Muwatalli II of the Hittites rallied several allies to his cause, including Rimisharrinaa, the king of Aleppo. Muwatalli strategically placed his forces behind Old Kadesh, but Ramesses II was deceived by two captured spies into believing the Hittite army was still far away, near Aleppo. This misinformation led Ramesses to order his troops to set up camp prematurely, resulting in the Egyptian forces being surprised by the actual proximity of the Hittite army near Kadesh.
As Ramesses and the Egyptian vanguard were approximately 11 kilometres south of Shabtuna, nearing Kadesh, they encountered two Shasu nomads. These nomads misled Ramesses by claiming that the Hittite king was far away, in the land of Aleppo, over 200 kilometres north of Tunip, allegedly too fearful of Pharaoh to approach. According to Egyptian accounts, this misinformation was a deliberate strategy by the Hittites to prevent the Egyptian forces from preparing for battle. Later, an Egyptian scout captured two Hittite spies and brought them before Ramesses. Under questioning, the spies confessed their true allegiance to the Hittite king and revealed that contrary to the false reports, the entire Hittite force, along with their king and allies, was indeed very close. In response to this precarious situation, he commanded his vizier to expedite the arrival of the Ptah and Seth divisions, while the Ra division was already nearing the camp. Amid these urgent discussions and preparations for battle, the Hittite forces took aggressive action. Hittite chariots forded the river and launched a surprise attack directly on the center of the Ra division, which was en-route to join Ramesses. The Ra division, caught off-guard and vulnerable in the open terrain, was quickly thrown into disarray. The soldiers were forced to scatter in all directions, with some attempting to flee north towards the Amun camp. Throughout this chaotic retreat, the Hittite chariots relentlessly pursued the fleeing Egyptian troops, exacerbating the disorder and confusion within the Egyptian ranks. This bold and unexpected maneuver by the Hittites significantly disrupted the Egyptian battle formation, marking a critical moment in the unfolding of the Battle of Kadesh. Following their initial attack, the Hittite charioteers extended their offensive, sweeping northward towards the Egyptian encampment. They breached the Amun division’s defensive perimeter, breaking through the shield wall and inciting widespread panic among the Egyptian ranks. Nevertheless, the intensity of the Hittite assault began to diminish as the physical layout and size of the Egyptian camp presented logistical challenges, slowing their advance. In the Egyptian narratives of the conflict, Ramesses II portrays himself as isolated amidst the turmoil, without any officers, charioteers, soldiers, or shield-bearers by his side. Despite this dire situation, Ramesses managed to repel his immediate assailants and regroup with his forces. He likened his resilience to that of the deity Seth, scattering the enemy chariots surrounding him with a formidable display of strength and leadership. Faced with a critical struggle for survival, Ramesses summoned his inner resolve and the protection of his deity, Amun, demonstrating exceptional bravery. The pharaoh personally led multiple countercharges against the Hittite forces, rallying his guard, elements of the Amun division, and the remnants of the beleaguered Ra division. This valiant effort by Ramesses and his troops exemplifies the pharaoh’s determination and tactical acumen, enabling him to navigate through one of the most challenging moments of the battle. The Hittites, under the assumption that they had decisively defeated the Egyptians, began to plunder the Egyptian camp. This premature act of looting made them vulnerable to a strategic counteroffensive by Ramesses. Seizing the opportunity presented by the distracted Hittites, Ramesses led a successful counterattack that not only repelled the looters but also forced them back towards the Orontes River, effectively reclaiming the safety of the Egyptian encampment. The pursuit that followed showcased the superiority of the Egyptian chariots in terms of speed and maneuverability. The Egyptian forces took advantage of their lighter and faster chariots to easily catch up with and overpower the heavier Hittite chariots. This tactical advantage allowed the Egyptians to inflict significant losses on the Hittites, reversing the course of the battle and demonstrating the effectiveness of Ramesses’s leadership and the mobility of his forces in the heat of combat. Facing logistical challenges that made a prolonged siege of Kadesh untenable, Ramesses decided against attempting to breach the fortified city. Instead, he led his forces on a southward retreat, moving towards Damascus before ultimately returning to Egypt. Once back in his homeland, Ramesses declared the campaign a victory, emphasizing the defeat of his enemies despite not capturing Kadesh itself. Following the inconclusive Battle of Kadesh, which ended in a strategic stalemate, both the Egyptians and the Hittites continued their military engagements. The battle spurred the Egyptians to innovate, particularly in chariot technology, enhancing their combat capabilities. Despite this, the Hittite king Muwatalli II captured territories south into Egypt, diminishing Egypt's influence to mainly Canaan. This prompted Ramesses II to suppress revolts in Canaan to secure his rule. His subsequent campaigns regained territories, including the cities of Dapur and Tunip, showcasing his resilience and strategic prowess.
However, these victories were short-lived, as the contested lands quickly fell back under Hittite control, highlighting the
ongoing stalemate between the two powers. Ultimately, a historic peace treaty between Ramesses II and the new Hittite king, Hattusili III, was signed 15 years afterKadesh, in 1258 BC. Thanks for sticking with us until the end! Your best move now is to drop a comment and hit that subscribe button. Your support motivates me to keep producing more content like this! Thanks for watching!
