The hot August day would cool by the time
the French knights in the service of the King of Castile would made themselves ready and
in position for the charge. Their Portuguese enemy had the high ground,
but they were a ragtag agglomeration of peasants: the dregs of Lisbon, led by a bastard, hiding
on a hill outside a village called Aljubarrota. They had no armor to speak of; what pieces
they did have were shared, so that each man wore a patchwork of items – one wore a mail
shirt with no helmet, another wore a leather cuirass with no mail. The French vanguard were in such numbers and
such control that they had simply rode around the bastard’s army and were now lining up
in formation to attack its rear, where the slope was gentler and the defenses weaker,
and none of the Portuguese forces had anything to say in the matter. On the French line, pennants and coats of
arms flew high and colorful in the early evening breeze. Armor shone – visors glistened. Their horses were so well outfitted that they
jangled when they lifted their legs and stamped the dusty ground. The Castilians were not in the first battleline. Their King Juan had given leave for the French
to lead the assault, and the glory was to be theirs. After riding all the way from France where
the Hundred Years War with the English still raged, the French were itching to show their
prowess – keen to show their mastery of the battlefield to their Spanish allies. The Portuguese peasants with their sticks
and slings were going to be annihilated under the hooves of the finest heavy cavalry on
Earth. At last, at about six o’clock, the order
was given, and the trumpets blew. The creeks and trees on either side of the
hill laid out a perfect lane for the cavalry to start its advance – like a bowling ball
that could not miss. The advance turned into a charge – the cries
of the few nobles on the Portuguese side for their novice infantry to hold their positions
sounded strained in the wind – soon the drumming of the hooves digging divots and
throwing up earth replaced all else – like an oncoming wave of steel and flesh, the heavy
cavalry closed on its enemy… The Iberian peninsula that today consists
almost entirely of Spain and Portugal was in the 14th century fragmented into the Kingdoms
of Castile & Leon, Aragorn, Navarre, the Emirate of Granada, and Portugal. By the middle 1300s, the emirates had been
in retreat for two centuries, and the remaining Islamic territory of the once powerful Al-Andulus
was confined to the south. The Christian kingdoms of Iberia saw frequent
intermarriage between their royal houses, often with an eye to co-rule, or establishing
the rule of one kingdom’s line over another. The roots of the Battle of Aljubarrota in
1385 lie in a dispute arising from one such marriage arrangement. King Ferdinand I of Portugal, who ruled from
1367 to 1383, had unsuccessfully claimed the throne of Castile along with that of Portugal,
and in an effort to at least secure his royal lineage, he and the Castilians had arranged
that his sole legitimate heir – Princess Beatrice – would marry King Juan I of Castile. Should the marriage result in a male child,
he would inherit the thrones of both Portugal and Castile. The marriage was unpopular in Portugal, particularly
in the south and with the ascendant merchant class of Lisbon, which had been excluded from
the negotiations with Castile. Wars between Portugal and Castile had been
common in the years preceding the marriage, and Portuguese hostility to the new regime
was compounded when on the death of Ferdinand I in 1383, the regent put in charge of the
royal administration for the ten year old Beatrice was her mother, Leonor Teles, a deeply
unpopular figure, viewed as disloyal and immoral by the populace, and suspected of poisoning
her husband. The political situation in Portugal itself
became toxic when a challenger to the succession arrangement arose in the form of Joao of Aviz,
an illegitimate brother of the departed king, Ferdinand I. Joao was young – 26 years old - handsome,
wealthy, skilled in both war and diplomacy. He was also Grand Master of the Military Order
of Saint Benedict of Aviz, a body of knights founded to emulate the ethos of the Knights
Templar. In October 1383, the Portuguese throne nominally
passed to ten-year old Beatrice, but it was her mother and regent Leonor Teles who pulled
the strings. Worryingly, Leonor’s lover, Joao Fernandes
Andeira was a supporter of Castile and had a substantial influence in Beatrice’s court. But Joao of Aviz made his intentions clear
when he assassinated Andeira a month later. Anti-Castilian elements rallied around him,
naming him Protector of the Realm. Seeing his wife’s inheritance threatened,
King Juan of Castile moved immediately to secure what had been promised to him by Ferdinand
I. In March 1384, he dispatched Pedro Alvarez
ahead of 5,000 men, mostly cavalry. Crossing into the region of Atoleiros, he
besieged Fronteira. The campaign, however, was met by the young
and energetic Nuno Alvares Pereira. Marching from Lisbon with 1,000 men, he collected
additional 600 troops en-route. By April he reached the besieged city. Despite being outnumbered three to one, Nuno
made use of the defensive infantry squares to ward off and exhaust the Castilian cavalry
charges. A prolonged fight ensued, but the Castilians
were unable to break the Portuguese resolve. Suffering heavy casualties in futile attacks
against the formidable square formations, Pedro Alvarez was forced to withdraw and abandon
the siege of Fronteira. The stunning victory of Nuno Alvares’ hadn’t
gone unnoticed. For his heroism and leadership, Joao awarded
him the title Constable of Portugal, thus making him his second in command. The victory at Fronteira invigorated the fighting
spirit of the anti-Castilian faction and put wind in the sails of Joao’s attempt on the
Portuguese throne. His prestige hurt, Juan reacted swiftly. Mobilizing a much larger force of over 20,000,
the king of Castile went in for the kill by advancing on Lisbon, which was not only the
vital center of trade and commerce, but also the symbolic seat of Portuguese royalty. Juan’s goal was nothing less than a coronation
in the capital, which would secure his legitimacy and sovereignty over Portugal. By the 29th of May 1384, Juan’s army encircled
and besieged the city, while the Castilian navy blockaded the port. Lisbon was cut off. The siege dragged on for two months, but the
resolve of the Portuguese under Joao of Aviz did not waver, despite widespread famine within
the walls and an outbreak of the bubonic plague. By July, calls for help were answered when
a Portuguese fleet appeared, with the objective of breaking through the blockade and resupplying
the starving capital. They engaged the larger Castilian fleet at
the mouth of the Tagus river. The Portuguese lost three ships and their
admiral, Rui Pereira, but the defenders of Lisbon were resupplied. The valiant act of sacrifice by the Portuguese
fleet allowed the city to continue its defiance. Meanwhile, Nuno Alvares Pereira was tasked
with harassing the besiegers. But being so vastly outnumbered, all he could
do was conduct guerilla attacks against Castilian supply lines. Juan was forced to introduce rations for the
troops. But the siege lines held. It seemed only a matter of time before Lisbon
would fall. However, by late July the bubonic plague had
spread, engulfing much of the city and the Castilian siege lines. Throughout August, the ravaging pestilence
tested the resolve of both the defenders and the besiegers. Finally, Juan abandoned the siege in early
September, faced with increasing supply problems and the terrible toll the plague was taking
on his troops. While the invaders limped back to Castile
to recover, Joao used the respite to begin a diplomatic offensive to try and win support
for the Portuguese cause against its much larger neighbor. He attempted to gain the recognition from
the Pope. But, more importantly, Joao’s embassy to
the seventeen-year-old Richard II of England was met with much enthusiasm. Only a minor at the time, the real power lay
with his uncle John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster and regent of England, himself a
claimant to the Castilian throne through his wife. At first reluctant, the duke was eventually
persuaded to send troops and reinforce the Portuguese army. The English provided a small but effective
force of 200 longbowmen, and another 500 volunteers joined from the English-ruled Duchy of Gascony. In total, the English contingent numbered
700 well trained troops. With his reputation bolstered by the successful
diplomatic efforts, Joao arranged the Council of the Kingdom in Coimbra in April 1385. Attended by representatives of the nobility,
clergy, and the bourgeoisie, the assembly declared him King Joao I of Portugal, thereby
annulling the will of the late King Ferdinand I. After acceding to the throne, Joao proceeded
to take the cities which supported Princess Beatrice’s and her husband’s claims. This enraged Juan! After regrouping during the winter and spring
months in Castile, he again crossed the Portuguese border in July 1385. This time, he would finish the job! As it was the year before, the Castilian objective
was to capture the Portuguese capital and thus gain control of the cultural and economic
center of the kingdom. There is no reason to believe that Juan was
anything less than confident that he would succeed in this objective. His previous siege of Lisbon would have been
successful were it not for the outbreak of plague in his army, and he was returning in
the new season with an even larger force. Contemporary accounts place the size of his
army at 31,000, against which Joao could field some 6,600 men. Among the Castilian host was a force of no
fewer than 2,000 elite French knights. These heavily armored cavalrymen were always
exceptionally confident in their expertise and keen to show their elan and chivalric
courage. Their leaders had a place among Juan’s inner
circle, and this was RESENTED by the Castilian lords. In addition to the French knights, Juan had
a force of 6,000 lances, 8,000 crossbowmen, and 15,000 infantry, as well as 15 primitive
mortars. Aware of the vast strength of the enemy, Joao
had settled on a proactive campaign which would confront and halt Juan’s advance before
the Castilian king could once more encircle Lisbon and use the Castilian navy to blockade
the resupply of the city. Along the 700 English troops, Joao had at
his disposal another 800 crossbowmen, 1,700 lances, and 4,000 infantry. Despite being vastly outnumbered, the Portuguese
were confident after repelling the invaders one year earlier and were willing to fight
a pitched battle to decide the war and ownership of the Portuguese throne. Understanding that Juan needed to uphold his
honor in not avoiding a fight against a much smaller opponent, Joao hoped to lure him into
unfavorable ground. To achieve this, he counted on the suggestions
of his English allies and the brilliance of Nuno Alvares to find a strong defensible position. Interestingly, in a mark of the divided support
among the Portuguese for Joao’s cause, Nuno’s own brother Pedro was serving as commander
of Juan’s forces. Moving to block the invaders coming from the
north, Joao’s force took a defensive position on a hill outside Aljubarrota. Having marched tens of kilometers the previous
day, Juan and his army did not arrive at the battle site until noon of the 14th of August. After hearing reports of Joao’s position,
the King of Castile held a war council. At the meeting, the French counseled an immediate
attack, stressing that the Portuguese could catch them in the open when they withdraw
to make camp. The Spanish nobles, on the other hand, advised
the King to wait and rest his troops after their rushed march, which would give them
a full day to rest and deploy, as well as gain additional intelligence on Joao’s position
and strength. But the discussion quickly devolved into a
crass shouting match. Sir Arnauld Limousin, whom King Juan chose
as his marshal, upbraided the Castilian nobles, first for presuming to know better than the
professional French knights in matters of warfare, and second for their timidity in
wishing to avoid contact with the enemy. The French hawks made an impression on King
Juan. Stirred by their tenacity, he gave orders
that the army was to deploy for battle. While they could not yet determine the size
of Joao’s army, it was clear that the Portuguese were dug in atop a flat hill, with an array
of pits, trenches, caltrops, and pickets of stakes prepared on the steep northern slope. Thus, instead of charging against such a well-prepared
position, Juan ordered the army to go around and find a different approach. While this was a prudent decision, two fast
flowing creeks ran alongside the eastern and western sides of the hill, which would make
any advance up the sides difficult, and the Portuguese additionally chopped down trees
to further block these routes. Attacking through the narrow center along
the north-south axis was the only option. Joao and Nuno had their cavalry dismount and
take up position in the center alongside the infantry, while the archers and crossbowmen
were placed behind the obstacles on the flanks. Nuno took command in the center, while Joao
was positioned in the rear with a reserve force and the supply train. BUT, having expected to receive the attack
on the well-prepared northern slope, when the Portuguese commanders realized that the
massive Castilian army was moving AROUND their positions, their hearts sank. They ordered the men to rush to the southern
end of the flat hilltop. Worryingly, the southern slope was not as
steep and was more conducive to cavalry charges. However, King Juan’s army was badly divided. Still angered by the discord during the war
council, the Castilian nobles SECRETLY agreed that, given the French were SO KEEEEN to win
glory for themselves and show their mettle, they would LLLET THEM take the first wave
and offer them NO support during the fight. At some point in the afternoon, Juan’s force
bypassed the hill where they had come off the road and moved around to its gentler southern
side. At first glance, the defenses of the southern
slope were much less prepared. There, Juan’s army deployed for the attack,
with the 2,000 French knights forming the vanguard, led by Sir Arnauld Limousin, while
Juan had answered an appeal by his Castilians to remain with them in the rear, leading the
20,000 strong force. The remainder of the Castilian host was kept
in reserve. Joao’s army had by now also reversed itself,
with the archers and bowmen still on the wings and the infantry forming in the center behind
the formerly rear lines of crisscrossed fortifications. THEN! Down the hill, the French rode into view and
led with a full-frontal gallop, up towards the Portuguese line. Joao’s English archers and crossbowmen would
have had time to measure their range and lay markers which would tell them when the enemy
had entered the killing ground. Once the closely packed French had passed
these, a torrent of missiles rained down on them. A skilled English longbowman could fire at
least several arrows in a minute – some estimates give a number as high as 15 – and
though the several hundred or so Portuguese crossbowmen would have had a slower rate of
fire, together their numbers were such that they fired an arrow for every French knight
within 30 seconds. Despite the arrow volleys, the French continued
to weather the storm, but as they got closer, they were met with both sling missiles from
the Portuguese square and the improvised barricades set up by the defenders. The carpet of caltrops pierced the hooves
of the horses, causing the animals to pull up and throw their riders, slowing down those
behind and creating pile ups. English archers and Portuguese crossbows fired
point blank into these stationary mounted targets. Other unfortunate animals would have fallen
into trenches hidden from view in the rush and excitement of battle, and all the while,
the cavalry would have been funneled, corralled and controlled by the narrow hill between
the creeks and the impassable obstacles laid the day and morning before, running at the
center where the infantry waited with razor sharp lances to drive into armor and mail. On horseback, Joao urged on his loyal men
and allies to defend their ground, but on the Castilian line, Juan’s attempts to order
his own captains to move in support of the French was met with a staunch refusal. To the king’s consternation, his army refused
to obey him and left the Frenchmen to fight alone. Remarkably, the French knights reached the
Portuguese line, despite the punishment they received. A vicious hand to hand melee with lances and
axes ensued, as the heavily armored knights outmatched the Portuguese infantry. They pushed back the lighter armored defenders. But by now, less than a thousand French remained. As the day waned and fatigue kicked in, the
French knights admitted defeat and were taken prisoner. The Portuguese believed the fighting for the
day to be done and welcomed the French noblemen after disarming them, promising hospitality
while they were awaiting their ransom. Some of the wealthy French knights even ransomed
themselves on the spot. In successfully stopping the charged of the
armored cavalry, the spirits in the Portuguese line were high. Not taking anything for granted, however,
Joao dispatched scouts to report on the movements of Juan and his still enormous Castilian army. By now, word reached the King of Castile that
his French allies had been thwarted in their storming of the hill and that many of them
were taken hostage. Highly emotional given the rigors of the forced
march to the battle site, the insubordination of his commanders in not following his directions,
and the uncertainty of the battle itself, Juan decided immediately to launch a second
attack on the Portuguese position to rescue his cherished allies. Impressed by their king’s resolve, the Castilian
nobles were bound by honor to obey the order. Moreover, they saw this as an opportunity
to show their own abilities after the failure of the French. But they refused Juan’s order to dismount
and advance on foot. Instead, the main body of the army, 10 times
the size of the French attack, moved up the narrow slope. Seeing the MASSIVE Castilian charge caused
alarm in the Portuguese camp, but – crucially – not a panic. Joao quickly realized that having so great
a number of captives in the rear of his outnumbered force constituted an unacceptable risk. And, he ordered his men, on the pain of death,
to kill all of the French prisoners taken in the first assault. This was done with some regret and the Portuguese
then turned to face the oncoming Castilian mass. With the sun setting, some of Juan’s advisors
again attempted to persuade him to put off the battle until the next day, but the king
refused to leave his prisoners, not knowing that they had already been put to death. The Castilian charge followed the same route
as the earlier French, keeping close packed order and having to follow the line laid out
by the Portuguese barriers and obstacles. Their way was likely hampered even further
by the fallen French knights and their animals. Like the French, they nevertheless managed
to pass through the storm of arrows, bolts, and missiles in enough numbers to engage the
Portuguese front line in another savage hand to hand fight. While Juan was still on the low ground to
the south with no clear view of the fate of his men, Joao, seeing that the Castilians
were starting to break through the Portuguese front line, dismounted and walked to the front
along with the Portuguese rear guard, where he personally engaged the Spanish with a poleaxe. In addition, the Castilians attempted to flank
the Portuguese, but this was repulsed thanks to the support of the missile troops on the
wings. The Castilian force was now trapped amongst
the Portuguese square and with the two wings hemming them in one either side. At the same time, thousands of their own men
were coming through the bottleneck at the rear and allowed no movement backward to gain
some breathing room. Juan’s position downhill also made any kind
of command or re-structuring impossible. Many Castilian troops could not reach the
top and join the fighting, whilst those at the top were stuck. At dusk, panic overcame the Castilians when
the Portuguese showed no signs of conceding. The fight soon became a rout. A full scale massacre began when the Castilian
standard bearer fell. Many thousands of troops, alongside the senior
nobility, perished in the aftermath. Miraculously, a few hundred Castilians did
manage to disengage to create a mere tens of meters of distance, and a THIRD assault
was launched. But having been successful twice against fresher
and braver combatants, the Portuguese grimly held their ground. Their king Joao still wielding his axe, launched
a limited counterattack of his own, charging after the now fleeing Castilians and cutting
down hundreds more in the panic. As night fell, King Juan took a fresh horse
and rode straight back towards Santaram, where the full extent of his losses became clear
over the next two days. He made his way for Castile shortly thereafter. With command of the army broken down, the
scattered and disorganized remains of the Castilian army stumbled towards the border,
each man trying to save himself. Joao prudently halted his army from pursuing
the broken Castilians during the night. He maintained his fortified position at Aljubarotta,
while news of the defeat traveled around the countryside. The Portuguese populace turned on the now
isolated units of the Castilian army, killing many more while they attempted to reach safety. Joao returned to Lisbon in triumph. He and his army were acclaimed, and he began
his reign as uncontested King of independent Portugal. His general Nuno Alvares Pereira meanwhile
kept up the pressure on the Castilians and even led an invasion there in the autumn of
1385, winning the battle of Valverde, despite once more being outnumbered 6 to 1. Joao’s victory and reign had a lasting effect
not only on Portugal. The next year, his alliance with England was
solidified with the Treaty of Windsor, still in effect to this day, and now the longest
lasting alliance between two nations in existence. Secondly, and even more significantly for
world history, Joao’s three sons: Edward, Peter, and Henry “the Navigator,” inherited
their father’s love of knowledge, science, and culture and initiated the policies that
would make Portugal one of the greatest powers on earth in the coming centuries.
