[Text: “When a government depends (...) upon
the armed part of the population, the army’s views on what the government does and does
not do are surely not a matter of indifference.” - Albrecht von Roon, Prussian Minister of
War. May 29, 1864.] On the first of August 1864, the Danish war
finally came to an end, but the peace that followed was short-lived. For decades, if not over a century, bitter
rivalries had simmered between Austria and Prussia, fueled by disputes over the duchies
of Schleswig-Holstein. Despite their joint occupation of the territories,
tensions remained high. Many believed that an era of harmonious cooperation
between the German Great Powers was imminent, but fate had other plans. Bismarck, ever the cunning strategist, was
not content with mere joint occupation. His ultimate objective was to annex both duchies
to Prussia and neutralize Austrian political influence in Germany. He was willing to go to war to achieve this
goal. In 1863, Bismarck had even suggested to the
Russians that Prussia might soon launch a surprise attack on the Austrian Empire, just
as Frederick the Great had done in 1756. To keep all options open, Bismarck dragged
out the joint occupation while simultaneously picking fights with the Austrians at every
opportunity. The victories of Prussia in Denmark not only
had an impact on foreign affairs but also had a significant effect on the domestic political
landscape. The wave of patriotic enthusiasm that followed
the triumphs led to divisions within the Prussian liberal movement, which had been the most
powerful opposition to Bismarck's government. The liberals desired a settlement with the
government, fearing that if the conflict continued, they would lose their hold on public opinion. During 1864-1865, Bismarck and his ministers
resorted to manipulation tactics to control the parliament. They introduced bills that either divided
the liberal majority or placed them in unpopular positions. One such bill was the naval construction bill
of 1865, which proposed the construction of two armed frigates and a naval base in Kiel. The liberal nationalist movement strongly
supported this proposal, but unfortunately, the parliament rejected it because new funds
could not be approved without a legal budget. He was able to take such risks because the
Prussian government's coffers were overflowing. During the 1850s and 1860s, the Prussian economy
had experienced significant growth due to the first world boom. The expansion of railways, steel smelting,
and machine-building industries, as well as the extraction of fossil fuels, led to rapid
economic and social changes in the region. This growth was supported by improvements
in production, transport infrastructure, a liquid capital market, a favourable balance
of trade, and the withdrawal of government regulations that had previously hindered growth. The coal mines in the Ruhr district were the
shining stars of this economic transformation. They grew at an average rate of 170% per year
during the 1860s, contributing significantly to the region's prosperity. With a booming economy and overflowing coffers,
Bismarck and his ministers could take risky measures to manipulate the parliament and
control the political situation. [Text: ‘The financiers are pressing loans
on us without parliamentary approval, but we could wage the Danish War twice over without
needing one.’ - Otto von Bismarck, March 1865.] The struggle over the fate of Schleswig-Holstein
resulted in a diplomatic standoff between the Austrians and Prussians. Austria was at a disadvantage since the duchies
were far from Vienna, and their interest in maintaining a troop presence there was not
strong. In 1864, the Austrians presented Berlin with
two options: to recognize the duchies as a separate state under the Augustenburg dynasty
or annex them to Prussia and compensate Austria with land along the Silesian border. Bismarck rejected both choices, stating that
Silesia was not negotiable. In February 1865, Prussia made a provocative
statement, declaring that it would view any form of independent Schleswig-Holstein as
a Prussian satellite. The Prussians continued to expand their control
over the duchies, angering the Austrians who took the issue to the Confederal Diet and
reintroduced the Augustenburg succession as an option. By summer, war seemed likely, but it was averted
when Franz Joseph sent an ambassador to negotiate with King William. [Text: “Politics is the art of the possible.” - Otto von Bismarck] In 1865, the Convention of Gastein was signed
to establish joint Austro-Prussian sovereignty in the duchies. Schleswig was to be under Prussian control,
while Holstein under Austrian control. However, Bismarck had only proposed this temporary
solution to buy time. Prussian provocations in Holstein persisted,
leading to Vienna being accused of violating the treaty. By February 1866, a council in Berlin declared
that war with Austria was inevitable, citing Austria's treatment of Prussia as a rival
and enemy and failure to honor the Convention. Bismarck argued that Prussia's ambition to
lead Germany had been unfairly blocked by Austria. The crown prince was the only one advocating
for a non-military solution. Both the Austrian and Prussian governments
were eager to secure allies in Germany before the war. Bismarck tried to gain support from the Electorate
of Hesse by offering them territorial compensation in the Grand Duchy of Hesse if they would
ally with Prussia. But Elector Frederick William was offended
by the idea and instead joined forces with the Austrians. During the spring of 1866, the Austrian Emperor
Franz Joseph sought to form a coalition against the Prussians and reached out to King George
V of Hanover. Despite some initial doubts, the King eventually
agreed to join forces with Austria. Soon after, many southern German states also
allied with Austria, including the Kingdoms of Bavaria and Württemberg, as well as smaller
middle states like Baden and Nassau. However, most of the northern German states,
such as Oldenburg, Mecklenburg and Brunswick, joined Prussia's cause, setting the stage
for a deadly conflict between Germany's most powerful states. As tensions continued to escalate, war became
all but inevitable. In the aftermath of the crown council in April
1866, Bismarck sought to secure an alliance with Italy against Austria. Negotiations between the two countries began,
and they agreed to support each other in the event of a war breaking out with Austria within
the next three months. However, Bismarck's attempts to incite a Hungarian
revolution were unsuccessful. At the crown council on February 28th, Bismarck
announced his intention to seek "more definite guarantees" from France, and negotiations
between the two countries were initiated. While the specifics of the promises Bismarck
made to Napoleon III are unclear, it is believed that French neutrality was secured in exchange
for territorial compensations in Belgium, Luxembourg, and the region between the Rhine
and Moselle, which included the Prussian Saarland and the Bavarian Palatinate. Austria had also secured French neutrality
through similar means, including the creation of a French satellite state in the Rhineland. These agreements gave Napoleon III confidence
that France would benefit from the Prusso-Austrian conflict, regardless of the victor. Russia's role in the conflict was crucial. In the past, Russia had opposed Prussia’s
unionist ambitions, and had aided Austria during the Hungarian Revolution. However, by 1866, Russia was preoccupied with
internal political reforms, and relations with Austria were still cool after Austria’s
betrayal during the Crimean War. Bismarck had cultivated relations with Russia
since becoming minister-president, and there seemed little reason to fear intervention
from this quarter. The conflict began on April 21, when Austria
partially mobilized its troops in response to unexpected troop movements in Italy. This led to a chain of mobilizations and countermeasures
on both sides. In May, the German diet demanded an explanation
from Prussia for its mobilization. Later that month, Austria relinquished control
of the duchies to the Confederation, and Prussian troops entered Holstein unopposed. On June 11th, the Austrian ambassador proposed
a resolution calling for the mobilization of the Confederation against Prussia, which
was passed by a majority vote on June 14th. In response, the Prussian ambassador walked
out, declaring the Confederation dissolved. The outcome of the war was not a foregone
conclusion. In fact, many well-informed contemporaries,
including Emperor Napoleon III, who had fought against the Austrians in 1859, predicted an
Austrian victory. The ultimate outcome of the war was uncertain,
and both sides faced significant challenges and obstacles. [The Hanoverian campaign]
As the departure of Prussian units from Berlin approached, the officers gathered at the Königswarder
memorial, while the generals and commanders went to the palace to meet with the king. At first light the following day, King William
I was present at the Brandenburg Gate to see the troops off. Over the course of the first five days of
June, forty military trains transported Prussian forces to Bohemia, where they were concentrated. In the meantime, Prussian troops moved from
Schleswig, which was under Prussian rule, south into Holstein, which was under Austrian
control. The Holstein Estates were prevented from meeting,
as armed guards stood watch with bayonets at the assembly hall door. Denmark posed no threat. Austrian commander Gablenz withdrew his 10th
Corps across the southern German states to join Benedek’s army. At noon on June 15th, Prussia issued 12-hour
ultimatums to Saxony, Hanover, and Hesse-Cassel, demanding that they stand down their forces
and join the new Prussian state, or face war. At midnight, Prussia invaded all three states. The following day, Austria declared its willingness
to help any state invaded by Prussia, which was seen as a declaration of war by Prussia. Two days later, Italy also declared war. The army of the Kingdom of Hanover, comprising
two divisions or 19,000 men under Major General von Arendtschildt, found itself mobilized
only because June 15th coincided with summer manoeuvres. They barely escaped a Prussian invasion from
Minden by moving south to Göttingen, abandoning their supplies and equipment. Prussian commander Falckenstein, who despised
Moltke, ignored Moltke’s orders. On June 18th, he arrived in Hanover a few
hours after its army had left and declared a day of rest, despite Moltke’s urgent requests
to press on immediately southeast against the Hanoverian Army. As the Hanoverian Army rested in Göttingen,
Moltke grew concerned that they might be joined by Bavarian forces moving northeast. He ordered Falckenstein to attack the Hanoverians
four times, and when these orders were ignored, he suspended Falckenstein's command and issued
orders directly to divisional commanders. General Eduard Flies was directed to mobilize
fortress troops from Frankfurt and move to Gotha, General Friedrich von Beyer was instructed
to move from Göttingen to Eisenach, and General Count von Groeben was to go north towards
Cassel. The Hanoverians, hoping for help from the
Bavarians and the 8th Corps to the south-east, were left to face their fate alone. Moltke issued a seventh order to Falckenstein
to put an end to the Hanoverian Army on the night of 26 June. Meanwhile, Flies was instructed to wait for
the arrival of Beyer and Groeben and hold Gotha and the Werra valley against the Hanoverians. However, Flies decided to attack the Hanoverians
at Langensalza with his 9000 troops and 22 guns, despite Moltke's advice to sit tight
and prepare for a potential Hanoverian breakout. [Battle of Langensalza] The Hanoverian army, led by Major General
Alexander von Arentschildt, held a strong defensive position on the north bank of the
River Unstrut. They had established outposts on the south
bank, including in Langensalza. Their main force was spread out between the
villages of Thamsbrück, Merxleben, and Nagelstadt, all located on the north bank of the river
and with a river bridge each. The central bridge was positioned at Merxleben. Arentschildt strategically placed Bülow's
brigade on the right at Thamsbrück, Vaux's brigade in the center at Merxleben, and Bothmer's
brigade on the left towards Nagelstadt, with Knesebeck's brigade held in reserve. The army, not including the largely unarmed
reservists who had joined after 15 June, consisted of approximately 17,000 men. On the other side of the river, the Prussian
force comprised seven elderly battalions of the Landwehr, including the contingent of
the allied Duchy of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, with a strength of approximately 9,000 men. The Prussian forces were clearly outnumbered
by the Hanoverians. On the morning of 27 June, the Prussian formation
led by Major General Eduard Moritz von Flies began their advance towards Langensalza. Flies anticipated facing a rearguard of a
retreating army, but the Hanoverian battalion covering the town had already withdrawn behind
the River Unstrut. Undeterred, Flies ordered his troops to occupy
Langensalza and the nearby Jüdenhugel hill, which provided a strategic location for their
artillery to overlook the Hanoverian guns on lower hills north of the river. The Prussians unleashed a punishing artillery
bombardment on the Hanoverians. Then, the Prussian infantry advanced towards
the river banks, intending to cross it. The Hanoverians quickly regrouped and moved
Knesebeck's brigade to the front to counter the Prussian attack. In a critical moment, Flies succumbed to heat
stroke and was incapacitated for the next hour, leaving his troops without direction. Although the Prussian troops deployed on the
southern bank of the river, they were unable to make significant headway against the Hanoverians'
strong defensive position. At the onset of the battle, the Hanoverians
had assumed that they were facing a considerably larger Prussian force. Their strategy was to hold their defensive
position near Langensalza and avoid moving northeast towards Sondershausen. The Prussian army launched a diversionary
attack towards Thamsbruck, which the Hanoverians quickly saw through. The real assault, however, came towards Merxleben,
which caught the Hanoverians off guard. Initially, the Prussian attack appeared promising,
but soon they found themselves charging against heavily fortified positions. Realizing their advantage, Arentschild ordered
a general attack across the river. The Hanoverians started their offensive on
the right flank, with Bülow and Knesebeck successfully crossing the river and pushing
back the Prussian left. It became evident that the Prussian commanders
had made a mistake by charging forward, and the Hanoverians saw an opportunity to defeat
the outnumbered enemy. The Hanoverian left, led by General Bothmer,
attempted to cross the Unstrut river and outflank the Prussian positions. However, the terrain was not in their favour
and they suffered heavy fire from the Prussian needle guns. Their first attempt to cross the river was
repulsed, and Bothmer refused to try again. Meanwhile, in the centre, Vaux's brigade launched
a successful attack with support from two battalions sent by Knesebeck. They managed to cross the river and capture
Kallenberg's Mill near the southern end of the bridge. This marked a turning point in the battle. As a result, the Prussian troops gradually
withdrew from their partially fixed positions and retreated into the town of Langensalza. The Hanoverians launched more attacks, and
heavy fighting ensued. Eventually, Langensalza was recaptured, and
the Prussians were pushed out of the village. As General Flies regained consciousness, he
realized that a retreat was the only option left for the Prussians. The troops were ordered to fall back to Warza,
just north of their starting point at Gotha. However, some units received the order late,
and were left isolated from the main force. During their retreat, they were attacked multiple
times by Hanoverian cavalry, resulting in some infantry being captured, while others
managed to repel the attacks. The battle concluded in the late afternoon. The Prussian casualties were staggering, with
170 dead, 643 wounded, and 33 missing. According to the Hanoverians, 907 prisoners
were taken, resulting in a total of 1,800 casualties. In contrast, the Hanoverians suffered 1,429
killed and wounded. The battle was a source of great embarrassment
for the Prussian army. Forty-five percent of Flies' army fled the
battlefield, while hundreds pretended to be wounded or hid themselves on the field. The rest were pursued all the way back to
Gotha, making the entire battle a disaster that achieved nothing. [Aftermath] Casualty figures were deemed top secret and
not made public for five decades. Sources conflict. Some state after the disastrous outcome at
Langensalza, Flies was swiftly removed from command. However, he commanded a battle against the
Bavarians later in the war, so he was either reinstated or never removed. Fortunately for the Prussians, reinforcements
led by Von Goeben arrived and met up with Flies' troops at Warza. Von Goeben's division also managed to reach
Eisenach, while Von Manteuffel approached the Hanoverians from the north. The Hanoverians found themselves surrounded
by a force of 40,000 Prussians. By June 29, the outnumbered Hanoverians were
compelled to surrender, under the generous terms of universal parole and rail transportation
home for most troops. King George himself fled to Austria, which
ultimately led to the end of the Hanoverian monarchy. The Hanoverian army was disbanded after Langensalza
and the subsequent surrender. Despite the brevity of the Langensalza battle,
the larger war between Prussia and Austria raged on, and that same day, the two sides
clashed fiercely on the Bohemian front.
