After a long career, Roman veterans would have
much to show for it. Decades of distinguished service brought with it not just an extensive list
of scars but also an impressive array of awards. As with modern militaries, these ran the gauntlet
from badges of personal distinction, to unit level accolades, and campaign medals. All would have
marked out a man who represented the best of the best the legions had to offer. So today, let’s
take a closer look at these Roman Medals of Honor the reenactment footage for this video was
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being our sponsor for today's video so thanks Awards for military achievements have
long been a part of human history. From the triumphal monuments honoring the high up
generals to the myriad of accolades doled out to their lowly soldiers. Combat medals specifically
have been found as far back as the Old Kingdom of Egypt, over 4,000 years ago, and similar awards
exist across many cultures and eras of the past. Thus it was that as the Roman military developed, it would be in a position to
evolve upon this age old practice. The early Romans took a huge
number of their traditions from the surrounding peoples and tribes - namely
the Celts, the Greeks, and the Etruscans. For instance, the Celts regularly used ornaments
such as Torcs as signs of a warrior’s status, the Greeks meanwhile erected tropaion, or
monuments to victory, at their sites of battle, and the Etruscans may have contributed to
key aspects of the iconic triumphal parade. By flipping through the history of Rome’s
formative years we see many records of their gradual adoption. The most common examples are in
the proudly cataloged deeds of brave soldiers and generals. Often these seem to be lifted right out
of some Homeric Epic where heroes duel one another in single combat, issuing challenges before
armies, and stripping the gear of vanquished foes. But while we might expect such incidents in
the early years when the legions acted as mere warbands, there is ample evidence
to suggest they persisted in the years of the Republic when the army became more
structured and disciplined. A prime example of this comes with the tale of Titus Manlius,
a military tribune who in 363 BC, answered the challenge of a mighty Gaul at the Battle
of the Anio River. Here is how Livy puts it: “The young man's friends armed him; he assumed
the shield of a foot-soldier, and to his side he buckled a Spanish sword, convenient for close
fighting. Armed and armoured, they led him forth to the Gaul, who in his glee thrust his tongue out
in derision. They then retired to their station, and the two armed men were left by themselves in
the midst, like gladiators more than soldiers, and by no means evenly matched, to judge from
outward show. One had a body extraordinary for its size, and resplendent in a coat of shifting
hues and armour painted and chased with gold: the other was of a middling stature for a soldier,
and his arms were but indifferent to look at, being suitable but not ornate. When they had taken their ground between the
two embattled armies, while the hearts of the surrounding multitude were suspended between hope
and fear, the Gaul, whose huge bulk towered above the other, advanced his shield with the left
arm, to parry the attack of his oncoming enemy, and delivered a slashing stroke with his sword,
that made a mighty clatter but did no harm. The Roman, with the point of his weapon raised,
struck up his adversary's shield with a blow from his own against its lower edge; and slipping in
between the man's sword and his body, so close that no part of his own person was exposed, he
gave one thrust and then immediately another, and gashing the groin and belly of his
enemy brought him headlong to the ground, where he lay stretched out over a monstrous space. To the body of his fallen foe he offered
no other indignity than to despoil it of one thing - a chain which, spattered
with blood, he cast round his own neck. The Gauls were transfixed with fear and wonder,
while the Romans, quitting their station, ran eagerly to meet their champion and brought
him with praise to the dictator. Amidst the rude banter thrown out by the soldiers in a kind of
verse, was heard the appellation of Torquatus, and thereafter this was given currency as an honored
surname, used even by descendants of the family.” Over time we see how such events gradually
developed traditions meant to honor specific achievements in battle. The notable actions of a
soldier for instance might earn him a Torque while a general who single-handedly defeated an opposing
leader would be granted the Spolia Opima, or noble spoils of this foe. Marks of distinction could
even be bestowed upon entire armies as can be seen with the raising of commemorative trophies.
As was common across the Mediterranean these were fashioned from the armament of a defeated army
and raised upon the site of the battle itself. By the Imperial Era, Rome had developed
a long tradition of recognizing exemplary military service. But as with many
things, the transition from Republic to Empire brought with it a chance to
officially formalize these concepts. Thus we see how practices that had organically
arisen during the Republic were now standardized into a framework upon which even more awards were
introduced. Let us now take a closer look at this system by examining what each decoration
looked like and what it took to achieve it. As with modern militaries, these came in
a variety of forms. We can begin with the individual awards for merit which were
typically reserved for citizen soldiers. One of the lesser and most common awards was the
hasta pura. It appears to have been a silver pin depicting a headless spear. The hasta pura
was originally awarded to a soldier the first time they struck down a foe in battle. In later
years this criteria seems to have been widened significantly to include defeating an enemy in a
skirmish or even in the apprehension of bandits. Another lesser award was a small silver
replica of a standard, known as a vexillium. It is not explicitly stated what circumstances
justified this award, though some have speculated it has something to do with the defense
of the legionary standard in battle. Other common awards were the armillae and
torquata. Both were of celtic origin with these iconic pieces of jewelry generally being
worn by distinguished men of their warrior class. As we saw with the story of Titus Manlius,
the Romans proved eager to co-opt such status symbols and soon embraced them wholeheartedly
with the absorption of Gaul and Britannia. Generally speaking they served the same purpose
as awards for feats of strength and valor. The armillae were bracelets
which came in grades of bronze, silver, and gold based on the status of the
recipient and were typically issued in pairs. Distinguished soldiers could win multiple
pairs over the course of their career. The torquata meanwhile were metal rings originally
worn around the neck. In later tradition however, the Romans issued smaller versions which
were usually hung above one’s clavicles. These often featured alongside
another class of award, the Phalerae. They were large, round medals made of
metal, precious material, and sometimes glass that were specifically made to be hung upon
a harness that was draped over a soldier's chest. While not fully understood, they seem to have been
given for a range of achievements. Some recognized individual bravery or leading a unit to a
particular achievement on the battlefield. Others may have benchmarked one’s years of service or
for having participated in the important battles or campaigns of one commander or another. All
soldiers seem to have been eligible for receiving such awards but it was the officers who were
honored with proudly wearing them into battle. Moving on we can cover some of the awards that
appear most tied to specific achievements. A group of these were meant to celebrate the
defeat and despoiling of enemies in single combat. For infantrymen who achieved this feat they
were apparently awarded a cup of precious metals while cavalrymen were awarded a
decorated set of horse trappings. However the most prestigious form of this award
was known as the Spolia Opima, or noble spoils. It was reserved for Generals who managed to
slay an opposing commander in single combat. By tradition they would strip their
foe’s armor, attach it to an oak trunk, and dedicate it in the shrine of
Jupiter. Romulus, Rome’s first king, was said to have been the first recipient of the
award. Over the centuries many would covet this ultimate prize but only a handful of generals
were officially recognized as having earned it. Here is how Seutonius describes
the exploits of Drusus the Elder who is believed to have been the 4th
and final man to achieve this award: “He is, however, believed to have been no less
eager for glory than he was Republican in his views. For it is held that he sought to win not
only his victories but spolia opima from the enemy, often pursuing leaders of the Germans
all over the field at great personal risk, and that he never concealed his intention
of restoring the old form of government, whenever he might have the opportunity.” Another group of awards for personal achievement were recognized by a series of crowns.
These came in many forms for many deeds. The Civic Crown, or Corona Civica, which may
have also been called the Crown of the Preserver, was a simple ring woven from oak leaves. It was
awarded to a Roman who saved the life of another citizen. The crown was to be presented by the
man who had been rescued and from that point on, he would owe his savior a life debt, treating
him as a father for the rest of his days. The Grass Crown, or Corona Graminea was similarly
rustic in nature but was of far greater prestige. It could only be awarded by the
acclamation of at least one legion, and was given to a commander whose actions were
responsible for saving an entire Roman army. Pliny refers to it as the
"crown of the blockaded," highlighting the commander's responsibility
for saving thousands of men from certain doom. It was made from the grasses and grains that were
collected from the very same battlefield, woven by representatives of the legion that had been saved,
and presented by the same men to its recipient. The most famous example comes from Plutarch
who describes the actions of Fabius Maximus in the Second Punic War. At the time Hannibal had
defeated legion after legion, leading the Roman general to adopt the so-called Fabian strategy
of shadowing the invader but avoiding contact. Others grew tired of this seemingly cowardly
approach and attempted to return to the offensive. But when Marcus Minucius Rufus charged headlong
with his army at the Carthaginian he was promptly caught in a trap and surrounded. Seeing this
Fabius charged to the rescue and managed to save the beleaguered troops. Here is how
Plutarch describes the aftermath: quote “When Fabius came forth, Minucius had
the standards planted in front of him, and addressed him with a loud voice as Father, while his soldiers greeted the soldiers
of Fabius as Patrons, the name by which freedmen address those who have set them
free. When quiet prevailed, Minucius said; ’Dictator, you have on this day won two
victories, one over Hannibal through your valour, and one over your colleague through your wisdom
and kindness. By the first you saved our lives, and by the second you taught us a great lesson,
vanquished as we were by our enemy to our shame, and by you to our honour and safety. I
call you by the excellent name of Father, because there is no more honourable name which
I can use; and yet a father's kindness is not so great as this kindness bestowed
by you. My father did but beget me, while to you I owe not only my own salvation,
but also that of all these men of mine.’ So saying, he embraced Fabius and kissed him,
and the soldiers on both sides, in like manner, embraced and kissed each other, so that the camp
was filled with joy and tears of rejoicing.” Yet during the imperial era
it seems that the awarding of these grass crowns brought with them
too much prestige and thus their use was monopolized by the Emperors who
received them as a matter of course. One of the crowns which remained unrestricted
was the Gold Crown, or Corona Aurea. Details are lacking but it seems to have been
awarded to both centurions and senior officers for killing an enemy in single combat and
holding the ground to the end of the battle. Another noteworthy award for infantrymen was the
Crown of Walls, or Corona Muralis, which was a golden circle in the form of a battlement. It was
awarded to the first man to scale the walls when storming an enemy town or fortress. The Corona
Muralis was a highly coveted decoration - though, as you might imagine, it was accompanied by an
exceptionally high casualty rate. Yet despite the risks, it proved an incredibly strong motivator
for proud Roman soldiers. There are even records of different units coming to blows over whose
man reached the top first. In at least one of these instances, during the sacking of Nova
Carthago, Scipio Africanus declared that they had both reached the top at the exact same
time, and thus would both receive the award. A variant of this award was the Camp Crown,
or Corona Castrensis, which replaced the golden battlements with palisades. As might be
guessed, it was meant to honor the first man who penetrated an enemy camp or field fortification
in combat. Such a feat was likely accompanied with similarly high risks though perhaps to a lesser
extent than the storming of a fortified city. Another award to mention will be the Naval
Crown, or Corona Navalis, which was a gold circlet adorned with the prows of ships. This
award was given to the first man who boarded an enemy ship during a naval engagement.
The medal could also apparently be given to triumphal naval commanders as was the case with
Agrippa for his role in the Battle of Actium. So far we have mainly focused on the vast number
of awards which might be granted to individuals. However there were many which were given to units. Often these came in the form of honorific
titles that would be added to the name of a particular group. This was especially popular
for auxiliary units, whose mostly non-citizen soldiers were otherwise barred from receiving
most of the awards we previously mentioned. In this way, honored units could accumulate
quite long official names as with the case of the "Cohors Unum Brittonum Milliaria Ulpia
Torquata Pia Pidelis Civium Romanorum." Awards to units could also come in physical
form with all manner of decorations which could be attached to their banner. Legions
were particularly proud of these trophies and revered them as hallowed marks of their lineage
which could often be traced back over centuries. Beyond everything we have covered, there were
likely many more types of awards within the Roman military which go unrecorded. With this
in mind, let us now conclude this portion of the video and move on to discuss how
these awards were actually granted. Getting Awarded
Such medals and accolades were awarded at the end of every campaign or military action by
the unit's commanding officer. He would read out the names of each soldier and his achievements,
giving each man his due before his peers. While this process could be a massive, laborious event
stretching out over an entire day or more, it was nonetheless an exceptionally important duty of
any good commander. Josephus records how the son of the Emperor himself presided over one of these
ceremonies after the fall of Jerusalem in 70 AD: "Calling up each by name, he applauded them
as they came forward, no less exultant over their exploits than if they were his own. He
then placed crowns of gold upon their heads, presented them with golden neck-chains, little
golden spears, and standards made of silver, and promoted each man to a higher rank; he
further assigned to them out of the spoils, silver and gold and raiments
and other booty in abundance." But we might ask, how did the general
even know who had done what in the chaos of battle. For this he had to have a keen eye
and rely on the reports of his subordinates. But catching every bit of the action was
impossible. As a result, soldiers often took it upon themselves to act in ways that would be more
easily noticed. It was supposedly for this reason that the velites of the Republic wore animal
skins so that their officers could more easily tell them apart. In the more uniform years of
the Empire, this may have proved more difficult. But it certainly did not stop commanders
from identifying acts worth recognizing. For instance Caesar loved to portray himself
as being particularly capable at spotting these valorous men. Perhaps the most famous
soldiers thus recognized were Titus Pullo and Lucius Vorenus. While HBO's Rome shares an
entirely fictional account of these two men, Caesar's commentaries describe them as two
centurions who, despite their bitter rivalry, engaged in acts of heroism to save each
other's life on multiple occasions. One important aspect of these ceremonies,
of course, was the generous cash that would accompany the award. This money would be a welcome
supplement to the otherwise unimpressive salary that a soldier might earn. Interestingly
enough though, it seems that soldiers often placed more weight upon the medal itself
than they did on the accompanying bonus pay. With regards to displaying awards, most
soldiers would probably not have worn their medals on a regular basis. Not only was
an average infantryman relatively unlikely to be adorned with a huge number of medals, even
if they were, carrying these about in combat would have been quite heavy and cumbersome.
For a common soldier, this extra weight was best left in camp. For parades though, soldiers
were keen to have their valor on full display and carried their polished medals atop freshly
cleaned clothes and armor for full effect. Centurions, on the other hand, are thought to have
worn their harness at all times if possible. They would often be the most decorated members of the
legion, giving them the gravitas that they might need to keep men under control. That authority
would extend to battlefield utility as well, making them distinct in a potentially chaotic
situation. Unlike the common soldier, they were less likely to do manual labor, carry heavy loads,
or to need to move lightly for a scouting mission. As a result, weight was less of a consideration
for them than the need to be distinct. It seems that soldiers who earned such military
honors would proudly display them throughout their lives. Veterans who had long since
retired and even their descendants seem to have preserved these memorabilia in their homes
as symbols of great personal and familial pride. Such honors would even accompany them in death. The gravestones of soldiers are prime examples of
this. Rich men spared no expense in commissioning a relief of them wearing their awards in
full regalia while poor men generally ensured that their epitaph would at least include a
detailed description of their achievements. In this way did Rome’s Medals of Honor
create a lasting legacy which inspired countless generations of men to devote
themselves in service to the glory of Rome. Stay tuned as we continue our series on the
career of a Roman soldier. Let us know what topics you’d like to see us cover next and
be sure to head over to Imperium Romanum’s channel where you can catch more of
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