Roman Britain: Religion and the Vindolanda Tablets

right very quickly to give us some time to discuss our primary source documents I'll say a little bit about religion in well briefly about Roman religion but primarily we're aiming at getting an understanding of religion in Roman Britain the Romans were polytheistic which means prior to the adoption of Christianity of course they believed in the existence of more than one deity of more than one God and this for a large part of history has been the prehistory as presumably the dominant form of religion only more recently have we seen monotheism becoming the predominant form of religious belief in the world so the Romans believed in many gods and to some extent like many polytheistic peoples they were relatively tolerant it's only when you get monotheism that you get a higher degree of religious intolerance between groups because they say this is the only God and yours is wrong or something like that but polytheistic peoples and I wouldn't say this is 100% true but in general in the past there's evidence that polytheistic peoples were often a little bit more tolerant or flexible when it came to encountering other polytheistic people so for example they might say well we worship a Sun God and we calling this and you also worship a Sun God but he has a different name but really it's the same guy okay and so we're not going to argue too much about that or whatever or else as it often was the case polytheistic systems will absorb the gods of other people's into theirs in fact many of the Roman what we call Roman gods probably I mean particularly the planets I think originated amongst the Etruscans I think that was something they took from their Etruscan rulers and predecessors and Italy and absorbed it into their system so the main point to make is that they were polytheistic but relatively flexible at the same time so for example we get as we shall see a degree of tolerance of the native British Celtic as we want to call it Celtic religion in Roman Britain and also other religious trends spreading and so on so for example in the later period particular we see the mystery cult which we now call myth ryeom spreading perhaps having a more Eastern origin we even have evidence of this interesting religion in Roman Britain as well in other parts of the Roman world becoming an important element in this kind of general mix so the point I'm trying to make is this degree of flexibility and variety that we can see below the level of the big gods the planet gods Jupiter and so on and things like that the Romans had a number like many polytheistic peoples they had a certain number of layers and levels of gods and spiritual date deities and things like this down to the level for example of family gods and they worship their ancestors and so on have you seen everyone why I don't see quite an old film now of course but the gladiator you know the people's heads flying all over the place and so on there's a scene in that film I think it's when they really beginning when they try and capture him and so on he's in his tent and he's got those little figurines now he's not just some little kid collecting figurines or something these are presumably kind of effigies images of his ancestors and things like that and he will he being that the main actor being the they're the paterfamilias the head of the family was his job to to remember his ancestors and so on and things like that so I every time every soldier another God they yeah okay I haven't seen that but yeah you is it the cartoon version all that yeah yeah okay it's well our case all those 30 years ago or something but not for a while but yeah okay so we get the impression we've got a very big Empire and Britain obviously was a small part of that and there was a lot of variety going on both within Britain but more importantly within the whole system and so on the Romans brought things they absorb things they tolerated local things and so on and the Roman soldiers of course come from all over the place to be part of the army so they'll bring their own practices and so on Mithra ISM I think was quite common amongst the soldiers for example it was an important thing for them in that period we see also as a kind of political as well as religious element the Imperial kilt cult the worship of the Emperor and deceased members deceased members of the imperial family and so on Emperor's seeing themselves as living gods and things like this okay and this incorporates in the third century the idea of the Sun God Sol coming in so we've got the big gods but also the Emperor's themselves and this as I said had a political as well as a sort of religious significance as a way of kind of emphasizing the importance of the Emperor's in Britain as I mentioned before the native British Celtic peoples Britain and Ireland were polytheistic as well and they had their own gods who were obviously to some extent similar and in other ways different from the Roman gods and we have evidence that the Celtic the native British gods were tolerated and even kind of combined in some cases with the Roman gods and so on here is a an image of one of these guys that we've found in things like this so until the advent and spread of Christianity religion in Britain under Roman rule was very very mixed then of course it's this gentleman Constantine the Great the baba of istanbul who in a sense changes things in 312 we have his conversion to christianity of which there is a certain amount of debate and so on exactly what he thought he was doing he was a big follower of the sun god sol and so exactly whether he became a perfectly good christian overnight or whether it was a more gradual process it's hard to see but following his conversion we see the gradual we see more toleration of this rather strange cult christianity within the Roman world and then we see the gradual spread of it elsewhere we've seen evidence as we've discussed on Tuesday that Christianity already existed in Britain before Constantine's time okay so it did spread within the British world and here's one interesting point to make the word in English and other languages for someone who is not a Christian or a Muslim or a Jew for example but it's some kind of polytheistic believer is that they are called a pagan okay now that comes from a Latin word pagano's which doesn't have religious significance originally okay it comes from Tigers which also gives things like the French word pay and so on countryside okay so originally Christianity was spreading in the Roman world in within towns the earliest converts in the early centuries prior to the time of Constantine to Christianity in the Roman world were primarily not only but primarily in the towns okay and so someone who was outside the town was likely to be still a polytheist or non-christian and therefore a countryside man was a polytheist and so the word for a countryman changes its meaning and becomes to mean a non-christian in that sense so originally meaning a country dweller it ends up becoming in modern languages modern English primarily to mean a a non-christian other side of that coin verb arnis okay doesn't have quite the same opposite connotation but we do have the English word vervained which indicates civilization and culture or something like that which is where what you find in the cities okay herbs is the word for city urban there okay okay any questions before we move on to the Vindolanda tablets okay let's escape from my powerpoint show close this as well and if you can get out if you have your copies of the text I gave out I've got a few spare copies if you forgot to bring it along with you have you all got your copy anyone who didn't have their copy with them yeah okay I've got and did you all get a chance to read the documents I mean there's a lot of pages but half of it is in Latin so you didn't need to read those and it's sorry I don't think it amounts to too much reading for whether it's easy reading and understandable as other Zeynep who's not here today was saying I read it David but I couldn't understand anything of what it was saying and things so we'll have a go now together perhaps understanding this is the website you can actually get the same texts plus more full of notes and commentaries on the texts from this website I had a quick look through that to give me a few ideas earlier on Vindolanda was a auxilary for two roman fortress in the north of england and let me just see if i've got a rose my map my map of this guitar tease where is it here I've closed that file of nice so here is Hadrian's Wall it's kind of somewhere in the middle just near Hadrian's walls are very very far up in the Roman military part of Britain archaeologists a few decades ago had the great luck to discover these documents in at the site which give a kind of snapshot of life in northern Britain at the end of the first century so I guess roughly we're talking that about 8090 to maybe sometime around about 80 20 so the end of the first century and the early part of the second century is the period that we're dealing with primarily here here is I hope yes the site itself of the fortress and there was a small veikkaus nearby or outside the walls I think and here is an example of what these things look like this one is a fairly complete one of the two parts together sometimes you only have one half of the document surviving it most of the documents that we're going to be looking at and discussing were wooden tablets the Romans had a number of ways of communicating with each other including engraving onto wax for example here we have very thin leaves of wood usually two parts that would then be closed up to protect the writing and then as letters or documents they'd be sent to someone else and so on in some cases we have the two parts in some cases we only have one half of the Dipti surviving okay this is one of the ones we've looked at the invitation to the birthday party we might in fact look at that now you're probably thinking what the heck is this stuff here I can't understand this writing at all this is called old Roman cursive the letters we use to write English but also Turkish and polish of course to a large extent are based on the Roman alphabet which goes has its own history back and cursive is something where you write things very quickly okay or you connect letters up and so on so if I wrote this I write them deliberately writing in capitals so that you can see what I'm writing but if I was writing my own handwriting okay that's how I write to myself okay and apart from seeing the dot there so you're guessing there's an eye whatever that would be completely illegible I suspect most of you so what happened was to write these letters they began writing them quickly and bending them over and things like that and then you end up with this system which existed in the early part of the Roman Empire then you have a new Roman cursive coming in later on so I'm not going to ask you to have a read of these because I can't even work out what that's saying but we've got the translated versions here which is the best thing now before we start I want us to think a little bit about how historians can approach written sources how we can approach documents of one sort or another this is a common and rather well used analogy but I still think it's a good one which is why it's common studying history properly where you're using primary sources not just reading someone's article or textbook or something but doing real history which is what we're going to do for the next 40 minutes or so our hope is similar in a way to solving a crime on jury or something like that okay you have witnesses people who say this happened that happened in our case we have written documents which are equivalent to witnesses and from the varying testimonies of these witnesses we tried to understand what the society was like or what happened and things like that now the problem is we don't always have all the witnesses people don't always come forward to say oh I saw what happened and we don't as historians have every single document surviving to our time and often the witnesses we do have the documents we do have are for one reason or another biases their bending the truth they're telling complete lies they're twisting things and things like that so the one thing we can't do is sit down and say okay this is what it says and this is what it was like this is what happened okay we can't take things as their face value automatically in some cases you can argue this is a very straightforward document it tells us this and that and perhaps we can believe that but in many cases we have to be a little bit more cautious a little bit more suspicious and to think about the document itself before we actually try and use it to reconstruct history so let's talk a little bit about some of the points we have to think about there now firstly we could think about typology what type of document what kind of document do we have now in the Vindolanda examples we have for example things which are what we might call administrative records they're just recording statistics debts and things like that okay we also have letters and it clearly states this is written from X to Y okay now those are two very very different kinds of source even the administer of records we can't trust a hundred percent but they're often written with the as of just recording facts so that you don't have to remember them okay and or conveying those facts to someone else however letters are far more personal okay and the phrasing the forms of Latin and so on the people use more often as we'll see we won't look at the Latin but the phraseology and the things they talk about are more personal so let's take letters as an example a modern kind of letter is an email of course if if I was sending an email to my dad back in North Wales I would write about things in a certain way okay the way that I communicate with my dad if I were writing to one of you then I would write about the same topic maybe but clearly in a slightly different kind of way the things I would say were will be different if I was emailing I don't know the rector of the university again it will have another level of formality and so on so with something like a letter we need to know who the writer is and who's the recipient and in a sense what's their relationship what's the connection between them because these things determine in a very strong way what they speak about and how they how they convey their ideas about that subject and what things they're going to say and what things they're going to leave out and so and this kind of thing we need to think about for all documents who's writing it and why okay these people didn't just sit down and think Oh in September 2009 some guy and a few other students are going to sit together and they got they want to study the past so let's put some documents together for their benefit okay they were not doing this for the most part for our retrospective benefit in order to understand their society though some people may have had that motivation they had other more immediate more personal reasons for doing things and understanding the purpose the function of a document will also tell us a little bit about how we should read it and so on okay it's trying to persuade someone about something it will twist facts perhaps to push people in that way and so on in the same way that witnesses in crime trials whatever will again be economical with the truth if they're trying to save their friend or save themselves and so on and things like that so I'm not saying we have to be kind of completely suspicious and just throw things away but we have to be somewhat cautious as we approach our historical sources I think that's very very important okay any questions there how do you think No okay so we've got here our collection or selection from the tablets we've got our letters we've got our more mundane records and things like that they're very very important as I said because for the most part we don't have this kind of source from Roman Britain Roman Britain or 'brickworm was on the kind of edge of the Roman world and here from the very edge of Roman Britain we have a very valuable collection of sources which tell us about the life of this community of people and and so on so let's begin very very broadly and then we're perhaps focus in on to a number of questions thereafter if this was all you have if this was the only source you had for Roman Britain okay what kind of what kind of history could we perhaps write what kind of history could we write from using these sources what things could we understand about this society and therefore by implication perhaps the bigger society of Roman Britain we have got other sources but sorry God yeah okay so this is a military community it's a fortress it contains soldiers it has its prefect and so on so by definition we can begin perhaps looking at the military organization of that of that community and the way it works and so on and then we can branch out beyond that and so on but it's a starting point that's true yes I mean as I said last time it's not perhaps the most interesting of things to read just lists of prices or whatever it is but for some kinds of historians especially very very important kinds of source so yeah we can reconstruct the the life of these people to some extent from the things they ate the things they wore and so on things like that on a very kind of physical level these things are recorded what about the people themselves think about once again music but as far as other people in socialism right okay yeah I'm throwing the question out for all documents not just for the the lists and so on but the lists are quite useful sore lists of of different kinds of people if we wanted to reconstruct who was there for example you want to say okay who are the people living in and near this fortress in the north of Roman Britain at around about the Year 100 or something then all the documents we've got here and obviously the many others that we don't have in this selection would I think be very very useful okay right okay yes yeah okay well okay let's look at that that's the one we've got here and where is it now it's one of the letters it's one of the important ones here okay it's on page 127 let's look at that one okay so we're perhaps jumping ahead of ourselves here both the imitation of Claudia severa to saw pikia lepa Dina Claudia Sara to her Lapita nog greetings on the third day before the Ides of September 10th or 11th of September I think sister for the day of the celebration of my birthday I give you a warm invitation to make sure that you come to us and make the day more enjoyable for me by your arrival if you are present and there not the question mark there means they're not clear about the text there's parts of the text missing and things like that give my greetings to your kiri Alice my alias are my little son send him their greetings I shall expect you sister farewell sister my dearest soul as I hope to prosper and Hale and then there's a change of hands there it says which I wouldn't recognize myself from here but I think a scribe rose most of it but where it's a second hand that might actually be Claudia severa herself writing I think they think and then it says to Sal pikia Lupino wife of Carrie Carrie Alice who was the prefect this is this guy who comes up in lots of the documents so the wife of the kind of commander of the fort at that time is being invited by a female friend to her birthday I'm not sure if we know whether it was taking place in the fortress or presumably elsewhere I suspect otherwise you wouldn't actually have to write a letter so it's a similar kind of community elsewhere okay let's take this one document what can we say about this what does this reveal to us a few interesting and important things oh yeah yeah okay it may not be the biggest party in the world but it was still something they were trying to have a kind of civilized life and so on I mean firstly the important thing that what the interesting about this document is that it's written by a woman to another woman okay so firstly we can see that there were women present in these military communities in northern Britain they were not British women they were Romans of one sort or another but it's not just the soldiers and their commanders there but there are also women and children present okay my little son as well it says so I don't know exactly who I leus is but it indicates clearly that this is not just a male military community but it has at least up to a point obviously these are the most high standing women I don't think until a certain point later than this I don't think Roman normal Roman legionary soldiers were permitted to marry they were supposed to be single and then when they became veterans they could marry and settle in these colonies as we mentioned before so it may not have been that there were many women in these communities just the women of the leaders and so on just as the guy in the gladiator in that case he leaves his wife behind when he's campaigning or whatever but he was married because he was a general or something but again carry Alice the prefect the commander has his wife and children there with so on a very basic level we've got women there and we've got women who possibly were literate as well who are writing and who's part of this document and so on and there's another letter yes on the next page okay we have again that same two ladies in communication and she says somewhere in the middle there you will receive my letters okay so these two ladies were in regular communication okay they were close friends up to a point if physically separated and they community communicated by writing so this indicates a level of kind of literacy and literary communication within these people in the north of England so we've got lots of soldiers coming into of various sorts coming in the documents okay obviously we've got the Centurions mentioned a lot what other kind of people apart from ladies and children and the commander who what are the kind of people crop in these documents whether the letters or of slaves come up even letters written by slaves at least one or two examples that we've got here where we've got a service of a servant literate I suppose but it means slave someone who was not free and they've got jobs to do for their masters and so on and they're communicating between each other to get these things done so you had free people you also had unfree as part of this community and that's a common element in the early Roman world I think one of the later and more interesting documents has been interpreted but they're not 100% certain in a certain way now yes on the last page if you go to 139 it starts off somewhat incomplete and they're not sure exactly how to translate things but it says he beat me all the more goods or pull them down the drain and I know that all's going on about as befits an honest man I implore your majesty now it's been suggested I think that this might have been intended to be sent to the governor you know you're using the word majesty there would not be a Centurion or or your prefect either it might be someone higher up I employ your majesty not to allow me an innocent man to be beaten with rods and my lord in as much as I was unable to complain to the prefect okay so it's definitely someone above the prefect because he was detained by ill health I have complained in vain to the benefi carriers and the rest of the Centurions of his unit I accordingly implore your mercifulness not to allow me a man from overseas and an innocent one about whose good faith you may inquire to have been bloodied by rods as if I had committed some crime so some poor guy has got beaten up okay now okay violence is just part of the world I suppose and and so on but it does show that these kind of things were going on there as well and for me to have no idea what the reason I was and he's obviously claiming innocence which of course he ought to do he would do I suppose but and he's appealing initially to the prefect of the presumably of the fort but then he's even going perhaps to the governor to try and put forward his case he says a man from overseas okay trans Merinos it would be trans Moreno we have there now exactly what that means is not clear whether it means he's come recently from overseas or whether he's just saying I'm not British I am the Roman so I should be treated differently we could perhaps interpret that in various ways but the scholars who study this one suggests that this person is probably not a soldier he's not a member of the military part of the community he's possibly some kind of trader or something and they're trans marinus might be someone who's trading from abroad coming from abroad to here so this and a few other references indicate that there were also other kinds of civilian non-military people spending at least some time at the community for in this case commercial purposes as well so as we saw earlier when we looked at the fortresses and we talked about the suburban development they had their primary military function okay and here we are very close to Hadrian's walls are obviously very important military function for this auxiliary garrison based there but in addition we see it's a bigger community not just a simple military one we see women we see Outsiders slaves and traders and other people all coming together and communicating and working together in order to support primarily the fortress but having their own purposes as well okay is there any particular documents you'd like to look at anything else I mean the birthday one and the beating with rods one were the two that struck me as particularly kind of I suppose novel or interesting okay let's look at page 106 there's a little short thing here some it suggests it might be a memorandum about the Britons okay it's a very short thing I don't know whether it's from a longer document or whether it was originally short the Britons Britain A's are unprotected by Armour they are very much they are very many cavalry there are sorry I'm not reading for liquid a's cavalry so that's mounted soldiers the cavalry do not use swords nor do the wretched Britons this is our britain kali mount in order to throw javelins now what's the purpose of this what's this document trying to do do you think what's this strange little doc you apart from the interesting fact that it gives us this possible nickname for the britain's well yeah reconnaissance is a good idea well yeah if we got yeah I mean for me in okay from all the samples ago I think this is the only reference explicit reference to the British there at all okay so they are pretty much silent in these documents it's very interesting here is a community of well there may have been people who were romanized Britons there but here is a community of of Roman conquerors and their supporters family and traders and so on based in the north of England as it is now and their purpose is to deal with the local Britons people beyond the wall and presumably people nearby as well and very rarely do they actually get mentioned in the documents at all okay they're there outside the perspective of these things so and when they do crop up as you say it seems to be a sort of negative derogatory tone and so on we could be giving advice it seems to be you're passing on as you say reconnaissance information giving someone else some key to how to what to expect should they actually have to fight the Britons in some way perhaps and things like that so they don't use armor okay and they're when they're throwing their spears the javelins they don't actually go on the horses and things like that so it's a short thing but it looks like at least someone was thinking about what the Britons were like and what they were up to and so there were a number of letters in here which we'd almost take as like the equivalent of modern reference letters every year people can't mean say Oh David I'm flying to a university in the United States can you write me a letter and things like that and I follow a very regular format of how I can recommend support my ex students or current students in their application and so on and this is part of a kind of network academic network system of how we do things and we see here at least one or two examples where from what I can see the purpose of the letter is just to recommend one person to another okay it's a kind of networking system of promotion or advancement within the society if not within the kind of perfect or not within the military system okay the example is on I found page 124 but it's going on if the text is on 125 did you find a different one or is it the same one yeah letter of recommendation they think now the EOS that's got chopped off might be Claudius Karras who's mentioned in some other documents so Claudius Karras to his cereal is Kari Alice greetings Briones they're not sure exactly but that's what they've got here has requested me my lord to recommend him to you I therefore ask my lord if you would be willing to support him and what he has requested of you I ask that you think fit to commend him to Aniyah sequester Centurion in charge of the Legion at lugu valium by doing which you will place me in debt to you both in his name and my own I pray that you are enjoying the best of fortune and are in good health and then a second hand perhaps the hand of the actual requests a writer farewell brother and then it says to carry Allah's prefix so someone writing to the prefect at Vindolanda on behalf of someone else kind of recommending this guy to be recommended to a third party okay so it's kind of will you look after him and then say nice things about him to this Centurion in a different fort elsewhere presumably in the north and I think there are one or two other examples of this kind of thing so the purpose of these letters is obviously as in my letters when I write reference letters for my students is to say nice things about someone and to be rather formal from Kay to expect a positive response in that sense any other comments about this one because I found it quite interesting that this is the way that people would kind of move around and get on and things like that there were no formal advertisements for jobs and newspapers on the internet and you got on through who you knew and who they could refer you to and so on I suppose yes yeah yeah it's a common thing okay and it's not too different today we just formalized it in a slightly different way I suppose I'm trying to find the letter by the slaves where is the slaves letter which page that is on I should have jotted these things down number 26 oh yes number 25 page 130 that's right thanks sever us to his candy dose greetings regarding the blah blah and for the Saturnalia I ask you brother to see to them at a price of four or six asses and radishes I don't want the Turkish word for radishes so kind a small hard vegetable that grows under the ground with a red colour to the value of not less than half a Denarius farewell brother back to Candida slave of Guinea Alice the prefect from sir Severus slave of dot we don't find out who he is okay but the word service as I mentioned earlier is used here so there they're dealing with some commercial transaction negotiating prices as I said presumably on behalf of their of their masters and so on so these are not personal letters as kind of business letters I suppose so we've had private letters letters of recommendation but also more business letters here that we've got anything else any other comments you wish to make I'm noticing the time is running out I want to talk a bit about next week so I'd have to stop in a minute but as interesting as some of these documents are and as not so interesting as some of the others are they still give us as I said a kind of snapshot fairly unique picture of life in the military part of Roman Britain round about the Year 100 and all the problems of interpreting and reading and the fact that they're all broken up and so on makes it impossible in some cases to be a hundred percent sure of what they mean but still an important source for us okay to finish off I'll give you a bibliography material for next week now of course we don't have a class Oh take one for us right yes we have no class on Tuesday because we have the Byram holiday but we will meet again on Thursday what we're going to be doing is looking at again the very late Roman period and the very early post Roman or sub Roman period so primarily the 5th and 6th centuries when we saw the end of Roman military and administrative presence in Britain but also the migration of Germanic peoples into Britain from the continent and the movement of Celtic peoples around the British Isles as well as the structures and controls changed then people move in and we see the beginnings of the emergence of new forms of political organization which become the post Roman kingdoms that will follow up a little bit later on so I've given you again a select bibliography ok some of the things from our Roman Britain bibliography and the topics will be relevant their books on late articles on late Roman but I've got here a selection of important works that point to the situation and how we study this very dark but interesting period what I want all of you to do for next week or possibly it may be on Tuesday when we get round to this the following Tuesday when we discuss this topic together is to read have a go reading one or if possible the three articles that I've mentioned here and again I think we discussed these one of them last year in the prep class good genetic stuff okay as I said at the start of the course in addition to using written and physical resources we can also study the past by using modern and also ancient genetic evidence we can reconstruct the movements of people according to the present-day patterns of of gene distribution and so on so for the past few years geneticists and to some extent historians working together have been trying to interpret genetic information to understand the movement of anglo-saxons and other peoples during this period so I've sent the articles out chronologically so the one by Michael Weil and others was published first then again numerous authors but I just put the first from here Christian Capelli the y-chromosome census the British Isles published a little bit later and then slightly later and in a new way of interpreting the evidence set out by Hib mark thomas italia i haven't got the other authors there sorry about that they're all on the web you can just type in those URLs or search for these titles if you don't want to type in the URL and then you can download those pages or read them online if you prefer yourselves if there's a problem with any of these links or something you can send me a mail and I'll try and send them back to you so a few words of warning these articles particularly the first two are written by and for molecular biologist by scientists so they're not written necessarily for a non-scientific audience they follow a certain pattern so you'll understand the first page or so because they'll set out the problem you can read the conclusion and to some extent the discussion at the end but the middle section of at least the first article will just be kind of completely technical stuff about different kinds of HAP low types and things like that now I don't think you know all I'm stupid because I can't understand that because I can't understand it either but you can get a general sense of what they're trying to argue and how they're trying to argue their case by looking at the the first and latter part of the articles especially I think the third article is set out slightly more conventionally as well okay lastly is there anyone who would like to give a presentation for well I'm well okay let's say for this topic I'm saying is anyone who would like to talk about anglo-saxon migrations early Celtic kingdoms or something like that what may be speaking next Thursday so you'd have one week which includes obviously the by ramp who's gay you're interested yes okay let me put your name down then and then we'll have to have a little chat in order to sort out the details and things like that because there's a series of topics and problems here and so on and you've done a bit of this before from last year's so yes I shall be taking a box of chocolates in for the hard-working staff who will be working during those days hopefully tomorrow some of the departments will be closing and we may be closing a bit early but only on one one day which days again we're going to closed on the main by around day okay we closed for the two big by round days and New Year's Day but over the weekend we're going to be open yeah but not all the time okay you we can talk about your topic if you want afterwards that's another thing okay have a good holiday heart working if otherwise see you all on Thursday next week if you've got any questions or problems you can let me know otherwise I look forward to seeing you in a week's time

Channel: Study of Antiquity and the Middle Ages

Views: 10,693

Rating: 4.7222223 out of 5

Keywords: Roman Britain, Roman Religion, Roman Cults, Ancient Rome, Roman Empire, Ancient Celts, Celtic Britain, Celts, Celtic, polytheism, Vindolanda tablets, Mithraism, Imperial Cult, Emperor Worship, Ancient Britons, Constantine the Great, Christianity, Church History, Paganism, Romam Legion, Vindolanda, Pliny the Elder, Roman Soldier, Old Roman Cursive, Classical Latin, Roman Fort, Roman Frontier, Roman Society, Romanized, Romano British, Claudia Severa, Sulpicia Lepidina, Roman Army

Id: n9j5JL2PrsI

Length: 49min 48sec (2988 seconds)

Published: Thu May 30 2019