Sponsored by SurfShark VPN. While nuclear power raises fear among many
of us, it's considered one of our better options for a reliable, carbon-free future. Alongside
small modular reactors, molten salt reactors (MSRs) that use Thorium as a fuel, are considered
cheaper, cleaner and safer options to the traditional reactors fueled with the highly
radioactive elements and can benefit a nuclear energy expansion. With experimental tests
scheduled for a Thorium-reactor in China and US companies developing projects that should
be spinning up in the next few years, let's revisit Thorium energy and molten-salt reactors,
and when we'll be able to see their impact. Could Thorium reactors build a cheaper and
safer future for nuclear power? I'm Matt Ferrell. Welcome to Undecided In 2020, I produced a video on Thorium reactors
explaining what they are, why people were excited about them, and if they could really
be the future of green energy. But at that time, at least here in the U.S., we hadn't
seen significant progress in projects involving molten salt reactors. For example, in 2019
the construction of the experimental power plant for the traveling-wave reactor (TWR)
developed by TerraPower was suspended. That was a significant loss for the company, considering
that the cost to demonstrate a reactor like that was about a billion dollars according
to the CEO of TerraPower, Chris Levesque. Also, due to the technical and practical challenges
of molten salt reactors, Lin-Wen Hu, director of research and irradiation services at MIT’s
Nuclear Reactor Laboratory had said: ”There is still a lot of work to be done
in terms of demonstrating molten-salt reactor technology, even for uranium-based reactors.
Molten-salt reactors need to be demonstrated with a uranium fuel cycle before that system
can be used for a thorium fuel cycle. Moving toward a thorium fuel cycle has a lot of unknowns.” But since then there's actually been some
progress. Before we take a deep dive into recent news
on thorium and molten salt reactors, let's quickly review what they are, how they work,
and what pros and cons they have. That means getting into the chemical concepts behind
the operation of these rectors. You're probably aware that nuclear reactors
are responsible for containing and controlling nuclear fission, which is a process where
atoms split and release energy in a chain reaction. In short, atoms are bombarded with
neutron particles, fissioning the atoms into two smaller atoms and some additional neutrons.
Some of those neutrons go on to hit other atoms ... and this cycle keeps going. Inside the nuclear reactor is a robust steel
vessel containing the reactor core where the fission occurs. It uses a fuel that's usually
a radioactive metal like Uranium-235 (U-235) or Plutonium-239 (Pu-239). Along with the
core is a moderator, that's usually water or graphite, which is used to reduce the speed
of the neutrons coming from the fission process in order to feed the chain reaction. The heat
generated by the reaction in the core is used to create steam to turn a turbine and generate
electricity. In order to ensure safety in the nuclear reaction,
reactors have control systems called "rods" that speed up or slow down or even stop the
nuclear reaction if necessary. The control rods are typically made out of neutron-absorbing
materials like silver and boron, but the element that's used depends on mechanical and lifetime
characteristics, the neutron energy inside the reactor, and how it resists neutron-swelling. If something goes wrong while controlling
the nuclear reaction, this can cause the reactor's core to meltdown due to excessive heat produced
from the chain reaction. And this can be catastrophic, like what happened with Three Mile Island,
Chernobyl, or Fukushima. And all of these accidents haven't helped public perception,
which has held back interest in pushing nuclear power policy ahead. This is where Thorium-fueled reactors have
an edge over other nuclear energy technologies. But before I get to that, I’d like to thank
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out for yourself. Link is in the description below. Thanks to Surfshark and to all of you
for supporting the channel. Now back to why Thorium-fueled reactors have an edge over
other nuclear energy technologies. Thorium-fueled reactors offer a potentially
safer, cleaner, and more abundant alternative to traditional reactors fueled with the highly
radioactive elements. Thorium is a naturally occurring, slightly
radioactive metal that was isolated in 1828 by the Swedish chemist Jons Jakob Berzelius.
It was 60 years later that the reactive nature of Thorium was discovered by Gerhard Schmidt
and Marie Curie. Thorium is found in small amounts in most soils and rocks, where it's
about three times more plentiful than Uranium. The most common source of Thorium is monazite,
a rare-earth phosphate mineral that contains up to 12% Thorium phosphate. Th-232 is the most stable of the 27 Thorium
isotopes, which decays very slowly. This isotope isn't itself fissile and so it can't be used
directly in a thermal neutron reactor. However, when absorbing a neutron, Th-232 will transmute
to Th-233, which beta decays to Protactinium-233 (Pa-233). There's a whole chemistry class in here, which
goes beyond the scope of this video ... and my brain, but anyway ... After Th-233 beta decays once, it undergoes
a second beta decay to become Uranium-233 (U-233), which is an excellent fissile fuel
material. This fuel cycle is very important to molten salt reactors because most of the
proposed reactors rely on this cyclical process. One big benefit of Thorium reactors is the
much smaller half-life of the nuclear waste. U-233 can be separated from the Thorium, which
sets it apart from U-235 and U-238. It's U-235 that contains very radioactive isotopes with
half-lives of thousands of years. A standard nuclear reactor's waste needs to be stored
safely for up to 10,000 years until the isotopes decay. On the flip side, the waste from a
Thorium reactor is radioactive for about 500 years. Another benefit of Thorium breeding Uranium-233
is that it can be used in other types of nuclear reactors like Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs),
High-Temperature Gas-Cool Reactors (HTRs), Boiling Water Reactors (BWRs), Pressure Water
Reactors (PWRs), and more. Even so, the main reactor type that's being explored for Thorium
is Molten Salt Reactors (MSRs). There are many different types of MSRs, including
the Molten Salt Breeder Reactor, which is commercially known as a Liquid Fluoride Thorium
Reactor (LFTR). While conventional nuclear reactors use solid fuel, LFTRs use a liquid
fuel in the form of very hot fluoride salt that also serves as the coolant, and also
operates at low pressure. In these reactors, rather than solid fuel rods, Thorium is dissolved
into the liquid fluoride salt before sending it into the reactor chamber at temperatures
above 1,112ºF, equivalent to 600ºC. A great benefit of these reactors is that
they can self-regulate the process to maintain the temperature within an appropriate range.
As the temperature in the reactor goes up, the rate at which the fission reactions occur
goes down. In addition, the liquid fuel is run through a reaction chamber filled with
graphite rods that reduce the speed of neutrons, and if these rods are removed, the chain reaction
stops. It's a more reliable emergency braking system than traditional nuclear reactors. Another benefit is the increased fuel efficiency
in LFTRs. Because there is no cladding, there is little neutron loss, meaning all neutrons
are used in the reaction, not for crashing into the cladding. This increases overall
efficiency and the life of the fuel. In order to make MSR even safer, there's a
freeze plug safety mechanism built into the reactor plumbing. So if this plug is taken
out, the reactor salt goes down the drain ... so to speak. Imagine that a natural disaster
happens, and the nuclear power plant undergoes a blackout, the reactor would safely power
down without the need for any human intervention. The interest in Thorium isn't just for its
potential safety. Although we don't have a commercial reactor operating currently, it's
expected that Thorium-fueled reactors will have a lower price than traditional fission
reactors. From the economics perspective, Thorium-fueled reactors make sense for several
key reasons. First, these systems operate at low pressure
and high heat capacity, which means the containment vessels can be smaller and thinner. Also,
Thorium-fueled reactors require fewer components for fuel assemblies; they're basically composed
of just vats of fuel, making them simpler and cheaper to build. To make it better, due
to their operation at high temperatures, the heat losses are lower, so the efficiency goes
up. Finally, while conventional reactors need to be shut down for refueling, LFTR can be
refueled while operating at full power. While there are some major advantages to Thorium-fueled
reactors, they aren't perfect and there are several challenges that have been holding
back their mainstream adoption. The main concern with MSRs is that radioactive
fission products could potentially leak from the containment vessels. They are just in
a big, sealed vat. Traditional reactors keep their fuel in solid pieces surrounded by cladding.
On top of that, these nuclear plants will require periodic maintenance, but all of the
equipment will contain high levels of radioactivity, which can make maintaining the components
harder and riskier. Also, there's a proliferation risk because Thorium makes Uranium-232, which
emits gamma rays. This irradiation process can be altered slightly by removing Pa-233,
forming U-233, which could be used in nuclear weapons. Another concern is that while Thorium
is more plentiful than Uranium, it is more expensive to mine. Despite these challenges, the several pros
of Thorium reactors have resulted in some projects being developed around the globe.
Let's take a look at what's changed since my last video on Thorium energy. Some countries like France, India, Japan,
Norway, and the U.S. have reported some development on Thorium nuclear reactors, but there are
no plans for their commercialization yet. On the other hand, China is closing in on
Thorium energy. It launched its molten-salt reactor program in 2011, investing $500 million.
The Chinese government has been developing an experimental reactor based on an MSR technology
developed by researchers at Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) in the 1950s. Originally
designed for aircraft propulsion in the Manhattan Project, the ORNL's 7.4 MWth (Megawatt thermal)
output experimental reactor ran for over four years. The project was closed due to a corrosion
problem and cracked pipes caused by the hot salt, as well as the weak radioactivity of
Thorium. These issues made fission reactions unsustainable without adding Uranium. China
has put modern technology to use with better materials, instrumentation and controls in
order to build its reactor. The experimental prototype generates 2 MWth,
enough to supply 1,000 homes, and should have started in September 2021 in the Gobi Desert
near the city of Wuwei. However, researchers working on the reactor haven't confirmed whether
the tests have already started. If the prototype works as designed, China has plans to build
a commercial 373MW version by 2030. In the U.S., the California-based Kairos Power
plans to have a 50 MW demonstration reactor operational in Oak Ridge, Tenn. by 2026. The
company received $303 million from the U.S. Department of Energy for the design, licensing,
and construction of the Hermes low-power demonstration reactor. Kairos Power's application for building
the reactor will go through a review process with federal regulators. The reviews regarding
safety and environmental impact should be completed by September 2023. Also, in November 2021, Southern Company and
the Department of Energy (DOE) came to an agreement on designing, building and operating
the Molten Chloride Reactor Experiment, which will push forward the Molten Chloride Fast
Reactor that has been developed by TerraPower. By the way, TerraPower has announced that
it will build its Molten-Salt Reactor in Kemmerer, Wyoming, where the coal-fired Naughton Power
Plant has been closed. This 345MW reactor has been developed jointly with GE Hitachi
Nuclear Energy, combining liquid sodium cooling and a molten-salt heat-storage system that
will better integrate renewable energy. According to the Thorium Reactor Market research
report, the global Thorium market is expected to grow at a CAGR of 11.1% between 2021 and
2027. In addition, the global molten salt reactors market is projected to reach $18.7
billion by 2031 according to Visiongain Research Inc. When it comes to the levelized cost of electricity
(LCOE), a study published in the International Journal of Sustainable Energy showed an LCOE
of a Thorium molten salt reactor at $53.51/MWh with a 30-year lifespan. Comparatively, the
study showed an LCOE for a pressurized water reactor (PWR) at $63.08/MWh for a 30-year
lifespan, so according to the study, Thorium-based reactors could be a cheaper option among nuclear
technologies. There's one added bonus that nuclear energy
can bring us, and this was mentioned a lot in the comments on my nanotechnology and water
desalination video I put out a little while ago, and that's ... water desalination. The
heat generated by nuclear power plants combined with electricity can be used for water desalination,
which means removing salt and minerals from seawater and turning it into potable water.
Because molten salt reactors don't use water to cool down the core, they don't need a large
water supply to run. . So it sounds like Thorium might be a win.
But do we really need nuclear power to build a renewable energy future? When compared to solar and wind, nuclear energy
is still more expensive. The Levelized Costs of New Generation Resources in the Annual
Energy Outlook 2021 from the EIA showed that for new resources entering service in 2026,
onshore wind had an LCOE of $31.45/MWh, while solar was at $29.04/MWh without energy storage.
With a four-hour battery system the price goes up to $42.18/MWh. It's also important
to consider that the cost for storing energy in batteries has been steadily decreasing,
falling from $187/MWh in 2019 to $150/MWh in 2020 for a four-hour discharge time, which
benefits intermittent power sources like solar and wind. Even though nuclear power can provide stable
electricity generation for the grid, these power plants are usually expensive, complex,
legally challenging and take longer to build compared to solar, wind, and hydropower. With
an average construction time of 6 years and the issues regarding nuclear waste storage,
there are some hurdles to overcome. New investments and progress in Thorium and molten salt reactors
make a compelling case for their potential benefits. However, there's still a long road
ahead in order to verify how they'll perform in real life. So what do you think? Do you think Thorium
reactors will make an impact? And do you think we need nuclear as part of the energy mix
at all? Jump into the comments and let me know. And thanks as always to my patrons and
welcome to new Supporter+ members Randy Meibaum, Phil Stiller, and Producer Josie Marie. All
of your direct support really helps with producing these videos and helps to reduce my dependence
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