This video is sponsored by MagellanTV. Pulsars are the most energetic stellar objects
in the Universe. We think of them as cosmic lighthouses sweeping
twin beams of radiation as they rotate up to hundreds of times a second. These beams emerge from the magnetic poles
which are thought to lie in opposing hemispheres of the star. But astronomers using NASA’s NICER telescope
created the first-ever maps of a pulsar 1100 light-years away. They found that magnetic fields of pulsars
are even more weird than previously thought. Welcome back to Launch Pad, I'm Christian
Ready, your friendly neighborhood astronomer. In our previous video Neutron Stars, Pulsars,
and Magnetars, we learned that they form when the cores of massive stars collapse, setting
off a supernova. These objects are so mind-bogglingly dense,
protons and electrons are squeezed together to create neutrons. A neutron star is essentially a giant atomic
nucleus more massive than the Sun, yet squeezed into a sphere the size of a city. Understanding the conditions inside neutron
stars is one of the greatest mysteries in physics. Their interiors are thought to consist of
exotic states of superfluid neutrons and superconducting protons, but the most extreme conditions in
the core remain unknown. To understand them requires pushing the boundaries
of our understanding of quantum mechanics. Quantum mechanics is a fascinating but mind-bending
subject. If you’d like to learn more about it, I’m
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of this video. Neutron stars rotate ridiculously fast, up
to hundreds of times a second. This creates ultra-powerful magnetic fields
that are so strong, they actually rip particles off the star's surface. These particles race along the magnetic field
lines until they slam back onto the surface at the magnetic poles. This heats up the poles so much they give
off X-rays. And these X-ray hotspots mark the launch points
of the twin beams of radiation. Typically the magnetic axis is tilted with
respect to the neutron star’s rotation axis, so the beams of radiation rotate with the
star like a cosmic lighthouse. When the beams sweep along our line of sight
we detect them as pulsars. At least, that’s the canonical model of
pulsars as rotating magnetic dipoles. Or put another way, super-spinning power zombie
bar magnets. But much about neutron stars remains enshrouded
in mystery, especially their interiors. To that end, the Neutron star Interior Composition
Explorer, or NICER, was installed on the International Space Station in 2017. NICER uses an array of 56 detectors to record
the precise energy levels and arrival time sof X-ray photons to an accuracy of just 100
nanoseconds. That’s 20 times more accurate than previous
X-ray timing observatories. Astronomers can use this information to build
up a map of the X-ray hotspots on a pulsar, and then work backwards to model its interior. This is a technique called Pulse-Profile Modeling
and in a way it's similar to how geologists use seismic data to model the interior of
Earth. But in the case of a pulsar, one must also
account for things like how the temperature varies across the star’s surface, how radiation
is transferred in the stellar atmosphere, and how light-rays from the pulsar get distorted
in its strong gravity. Pulsars are so dense, their gravity warps
the fabric of space-time around them. This has the effect of letting us see parts
of the pulsar’s far side. To see what I mean, imagine a pulsar about
8 miles in radius, but with far less mass. We'd see the object at its actual size, and
only see light coming from the near side of the pulsar. But if we let the mass increase, the pulsar’s
gravity warps space-time and bends light from the far side toward us. The more massive the pulsar gets, the more
it warps space-time, and the more of the far side we can see! This means the hot spots may never quite disappear
from view. But the light from the far side would be slightly
delayed as it has to travel a longer distance toward us. This creates a subtle difference in the timing
of the arriving X-rays. Astronomers can take advantage of this effect
to infer things like the pulsar’s mass, radius, and the location of the hotspots. From 2017 to 2018, NICER examined the pulsar
PSR J0030+0451. J0030 is an isolated pulsar 1100 about light-years
away in the constellation Pices. Its rotation period is just 4.87 milliseoconds. In other words, it rotates more than 205 times
a second! This puts J0030 in a special class of fast-rotating
“millisecond pulsars”. As J0030 spun, its X-ray flux was precisely
measured by NICER. Two teams of astronomers worked independently
to infer the pulsar’s properties from the NICER data. It turns out, both teams got very similar
results. One team based in the United States. estimated the pulsar at 1.34 solar masses
and 12.71 km in radius. A second team based in the Netherlands got
a similar result of 1.44 solar masses and a radius of 13.02 km. These are the most precise measurements yet
of a pulsar’s mass and size with an uncertainty of less than 10%. That puts J0030 toward the lower end of pulsar
masses, which are thought to range between 1.1 and 2.16 solar masses. By the way, a little side note here. In our previous video on neutron stars, we
talked how they form from the collapse of a massive star when its white dwarf core reaches
1.4 solar masses. This is the Chandrasekhar Limit, above which
electron degeneracy pressure can no longer hold the core up against its own gravity,
and the core collapses to form a neutron star or even a black hole. So how can a neutron star have a mass lower
than the Chandrasekhar Limit? After it forms, the surrounding layers of
the dying star slam down onto the core’s surface, setting off the supernova. But when all of that mass collides onto the
neutron star, a significant amount gets converted into pure energy in accordance with Einstein’s
E = mc^2. Thus, a significant fraction of the core’s
mass gets annihilated, and the resulting neutron star can weigh less than the Chandrasekhar
Limit. To that end, the teams not only weighed the
pulsar but they also determined that we’re viewing the pulsar from above its north rotational
pole at an inclination of about 54 degrees. But when it came to mapping the hotspots,
the data didn’t fit the traditional model of a magnetic dipole. Instead, both teams found that both hotspots
were coming from the pulsar’s Southern Hemisphere! It gets even weirder than that. The team led by researchers at the University
of Amsterdam suggests that J0030 has one small circular spot and an elongated crescent-shaped
spot both surrounding the south rotational pole. The other team, led by researchers at the
Universities of Maryland and Illinois, got a similar result, with two oval hotspots on
either side of the South Pole. Now these spots have similar shapes and locations
as the ones found by the Dutch team. But the American team found a third, cooler
spot just slightly offset from the pulsar’s South Pole. This third spot was barely detected just at
the edge of our view of the pulsar. Both are extremely weird results, and look
nothing like the classical magnetic dipole model. So does this mean our understanding of pulsars
is fundamentally wrong? Well, researchers who study pulsars would
be the first to tell you that the traditional dipole model hasn’t satisfactorily explained
all of the observed pulsar phenomena over the last 50 plus years. Higher-order magnetic multipoles had been
proposed to explain different pulsar observations. But the resulting magnetic fields are much
more complex and require numerical simulations that can only be done on supercomputers. However, the NICER data revealed two distinct
repeating pulse components, so both teams were able to test models with two hot regions
on the star’s surface while varying the location and shape to include ovals and crescents. The fact that both results are similar to
each other strongly suggests that there’s a real non-canonical magnetic dipole on J0030. But everything else about the pulsar, its
timing behavior, gamma-ray output, its X-ray properties and radio pulsations, are all typical
for millisecond pulsars. And that suggests that what we’re seeing
in J0030 might not be all that unusual for millisecond pulsars. And that has some interesting implications. Perhaps the pulsar started off with a typical
dipole that somehow got shunted way off from the center down to the pulsar’s southern
hemisphere. Such offset magnetic fields are not uncommon
in nature. For example, planets Uranus and Neptune in
our own Solar System have offset magnetic fields as well. Another possibility is that J0030 is undergoing
a change in its magnetic field. Pulsars do evolve over time, often slowing
down as their magnetic fields drag against the interstellar medium. Although how it results in the magnetic field
implied by these results isn’t exactly clear. Perhaps its polarity is in the process of
switching. The Sun undergoes a polarity reversal during
every 11-year sunspot cycle. Perhaps J0030 is undergoing some sort of temporary
magnetic realignment. Now J0030 is just the first pulsar to be modeled
to this level of detail. NICER is investigating other pulsars and it
will be interesting to see how their hotspot and magnetic configurations compare. Over time, a better picture of the evolution
of pulsars will emerge, along with a better understanding their interiors. If you want to learn the difference between
neutron stars, pulsars, millisecond pulsars, and magnetars, I invite you to check out this
video when we’re done here. I’d also like to thank my Patreon supporters
for helping to keep this channel going, and I want to welcome my newest patrons, Chris
Frampton, Larry Ross, and senergy. And special thanks as always to my cosmological
patron Michael Dowling. If you’d like to help support Launch Pad
for the price of a cup of coffee every month, please check out my Patreon page. And if you’d like to join me on this journey
through this incredible Universe of ours, please make sure you subscribe and ring that
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and stay curious, my friends.
