The man known to history as Kankan Mansa Musa
was born around 1280 AD in the Mali Empire which was located in West Africa. His given name throughout his life was Musa,
the Arabic version of the Hebrew name Moses, a man who figured prominently in Jewish, Christian,
and Muslim religious beliefs. Musa’s father was Faga Leye who was the
son of Abu Bakr, who legend said had played a key role in founding the Mali Empire by
supporting his brother Mansa Sundiata Keita and acting as his kankoro-sigui, which can
be translated to “his second in-command” or “Lieutenant General.” The family lineage was regarded as the beginning
of the Muslim Keita Dynasty, residing around the area of Hamana and Kolonkana in what is
known today as Guinea. The emergence of Sundiata as the first Mansa
of the Mali Empire, which was a position comparable to ‘Emperor’ or ‘King’ in European
terms, saw his great general Tiramakhan undertake a successful military campaign deep into what
we know today as Senegal and Gambia. Although the life of Musa’s father remains
largely unknown, we know that Faga Leye never took the throne himself, but his bloodline
would go on to produce seven Mansa’s who would oversee much of the rise and decline
of the Mali Empire during the thirteenth and fifteenth centuries. Musa’s mother’s name is believed to be
Kanku. There is little recorded evidence concerning
her, though women of the Mali Empire in the region of Kanku who lived in the thirteenth
century, were involved in pottery making, body art painting, traditional medicines,
sciences, technology and cloth making. The fourteenth-century Arabic traveller and
scholar Ibn Battuta, who visited the Mali city of Walata was shocked and upset by the
lack of adherence to the manners he was accustomed to in other Muslim societies when he observed
a married woman talking to a man who was not her husband. When he conversed about what he saw with a
local scholar the man allegedly told him this was regarded as good manners in the region. Other conflicting theories suggest that Malian
society was one still rife with what modern society would regard as sexism, with little
or no historical voice recorded for women such as Kanku being a reflection of this. However, ultimately the lack of a historical
record makes it impossible to declare precisely the experiences of Kanku. Mansa’s rise to power was deeply connected
to the history of the Malian Empire. Located in West Africa in the modern states
of Mali, Niger, Senegal, Mauritania, Guinea and the Gambia. Located just south of the Sahara Desert, the
region first saw the rise of an empire between 700 and 1200 AD when the Empire of Ghana dramatically
seized control of the region. It was a polity of considerable sophistication
at a time when Europe was stalled in the Dark Ages and as Islam flourished across North
Africa. Though quickly expanding and prosperous, around
1180 the Empire of Ghana rapidly began to decline as the empire was impacted by droughts,
civil wars and the development of alternative trade routes across West Africa. Meanwhile the rival Sosso Empire grew under
the rule of Sumaoro Kante. As the Empire of Ghana crumbled, the Sosso
Empire benefited and took large territories in Ghana, also conquering Mandinka territories
which were part of what we know now as Mali. The final collapse of the Empire of Ghana
and the fall of the Sosso Empire came as a coalition of kingdoms united under the leadership
of Sundiata, a man who had overcome his poor childhood health and his status as an outcast
to become known as the ‘Lion King’. Sundiata Keita initially united several small
Malinke kingdoms around the Upper Niger river, using a well-trained army and taking advantage
of a commercially good location in the middle of several trade routes. Sundiata defeated Sumaoro at the Battle of
Kirna in 1235 which resulted in the birth of the Mali Empire. In 1255 Sundiata is believed to have died
after drowning in the Sankarani River which is still marked today with a shrine that reads
‘Sundiatas deep water’, although less reliable theories allege that he was in fact
assassinated or accidently hit by an arrow in a public demonstration known as a Gitten. He left several daughters and at least three
sons, of which two were likely adopted from his generals. All of these would play a part in the succession. Much folklore and oral traditions about Sundiata’s
military prowess and strong leadership paint a legacy of a man who was able to establish
an Empire which united numerous tribes and languages while introducing new agricultural
methods, such as cotton weaving, in addition to establishing laws known as the Kouroukan
Fouga which where eventually documented and can still be seen in the constitution of modern-day
Mali. Mansa Uli succeeded his father Sundiata, and
has been credited by many for extending the Mali Empire into Walata, Timbuktu and Gao,
although this has been contested by other scholars. Around 1268 Uli embarked on a religious Islamic
pilgrimage or Hajj to Mecca, located in what is now Saudi Arabia. Mecca was the holiest of cities for Muslims
and a pilgrimage to the site was one of the five pillars of Islam. Shortly after returning from his pilgrimage
Uli died around 1270, and his adopted brother Wati became Mansa having fought off his other
brother Khalifa who was also raised as an adopted Prince in Sundiata’s Royal court. The conflict in part arose out of succession
rules not stipulating the necessity of bloodlineage to assume the throne. Wati oversaw a turbulent four years with parts
of the empire growing politically restless, before he died around 1274 and Khalifa returned
to the capital Niani and seized the throne before Sundiata’s nephew Bata Mande Bori
could exercise his own ambitions. It is believed that Khalifa ruled as Mansa
for around two years which saw political disputes continue between various political factions
in the Empire. The Mali Empire at this time was made up of
small kingdoms which pledged allegiance to the Mansa and were obliged to pay annual tributes
in the form of rice, millet and weapons in addition to taxes on trade which was controlled
by an institution called the Great Council along with matters of succession. Importantly, and in addition to this, all
gold nuggets within the Empire belonged to the Mansa ensuring great personal wealth as
stock piles began to be set aside. However, like his predecessor Wati, Khalifa’s
rule was unpopular and he was overthrown by the council, who then installed their preferred
candidate, Bata Mande Bori, also known as Abu Bakr, which was the same name shared by
his grandfather’s brother. Peace did not last long when Bata Mande was
usurped in around 1285 by Sakura, who was a member of the Royal court with some accounts
suggesting he was a slave. Other theories suggest the term ‘slave’
was not the literal meaning, and instead a reference to Sakura’s roots in the Tontajon
Taniworo clans who were freemen but often referred to as slaves. During this time people who were enslaved
would be paid a salary and were given the option to buy their freedom if they chose. Slavery was different than in later iterations
of chattel slavery and other harsher slave regimes. However, while slavery was not inherently
based on race, scholars suggest that considerable racism continued to be a part of the Malian
Empire. During Sakura’s reign trade increased between
the Mali Empire and the rest of Muslim world, while he also led successful military campaigns
and extended the borders, seizing land in the Gao region. Performing a Hajj, possibly in an attempt
to display power as well as engage in a religious pilgrimage, Mansa Sakura was killed on his
way back to Mali with some accounts pinpointing his death in the town of Tajura near Tripoli
in what is now Libya, while oral tradition claims Kon Mamadi who was known as Qu assassinated
Sakura. Whatever the cause of his death was, Sakura’s
passing in early 1300 proved good for Qu who was himself the nephew of Sundiata, and who
became the new Mansa. Ruling for roughly five years, Qu died and
his son Muhammad ibn Qu proceeded him as the eighth Mansa of the empire while his nephew
Musa was in his twenties and had become an active participant at the royal court. Unfortunately, though, we know very little
about Musa’s early arrival at the court, his education or indeed how he managed to
begin ascending within the power apparatus of the Mali Empire. Muhammad oversaw the growth of what was now
a powerful empire, but his passion resided in exploration and in the early 1300s he instructed
approximately 400 ships to be loaded with supplies and sail West, on the command that
they only return when they run out of food or find land. Many months passed before just a single ship
limped back from the expedition with the captain reporting to the Mansa that the fleet had
befell a vast area of ocean which had such a strong current that it resembled a powerful
river. While the other ships continued and were never
seen again, the captain decided to turn back, but his story made Muhammad suspicious and
instead of deterring him from further attempts it encouraged him to try a second voyage. Such was his passion for the enterprise that
Muhammad led the second expedition himself and in 1312 hundreds of small vessels were
fitted out with dried meet, spare rope and provisions sufficient to survive should they
become separated. Sailing such distances away from land was
uncommon, which made the journey more perilous, but Muhammad sought fame and fortune in new
lands he hoped to discover. Muhammad named Musa caretaker Emperor and
successor before setting sail, and Musa along with his family moved into the royal palace
in Niani which served as his home and the central government, having been fitted out
with multiple rooms, a royal stable and a cooking area capable of hosting thousands
of guests. There were fourteen provinces across the empire
which Musa had now become regent of in Muhammad’s absence, ruled by governors called emirs,
with the Berber provinces governed by their own Sheiks. Musa created national honours for these provincial
managers which successfully encouraged devoted service, while he had judges and civil servants
to assist with the implementation of his policies. In addition, Musa has also been credited by
many to have started the practice of sending students to Morocco to study at the educational
establishments there which benefited from their ties to Muslim Spain, a centre of European
learning at the time, and a place of education Musa felt far surpassed what could be provided
at home during this period. The Empire of Mali was formed from a kaleidoscope
of untied local communities, with different customs and languages which made this a diverse
land for Musa to lead. Musa ruled from a black ebony throne on a
raised platform in the palace courtyard with two giant elephant tusks either side, and
held the traditional royal court where crowds gathered to listen to reports from regional
governors, military personnel and legal discussions which ruled on disputes within the Empire. With all the luxuries and duties bestowed
on him by Muhammad, with time Musa was recognised as Mansa and was assigned his own dyeli who
served as chief counsellor in addition to a herald and master of ceremony who would
both be his voice by projecting the official wishes and commands. Musa’s rise to the thrown was determined
by the disappearance of Mansa Muhammad’s fleet into the Atlantic Ocean. Some historians hypothesise at least part
of the fleet reached America long before Christopher Columbus arrived in 1492, while others argue
the entire body of men was likely lost in a vast ocean they had never navigated and
with ships that were insufficient to make an Atlantic crossing. A third theory contends that Musa conspired
to somehow destroy the expedition so that he could claim power from Muhammad, but there
is no solid evidence for such claims. What we can be sure of, though, is that this
left Musa as Mansa of the Malian Empire in the early 1310s. Many years later, when visiting the city of
Mecca in Arabia, Musa explained to an emir named Abu al-Hasan Ali ibn Amir Hajib about
how the expedition had vanished. This was what he said:
“We belong to a house which hands on the kingship by inheritance. The king who was my predecessor did not believe
that it was impossible to discover the furthest limit of the Atlantic Ocean and wished vehemently
to do so. So he equipped 200 ships filled with men and
the same number equipped with gold, water, and provisions enough to last them for years,
and said to the man deputed to lead them: "Do not return until you reach the end of
it or your provisions and water give out." They departed and a long time passed before
anyone came back. Then one ship returned and we asked the captain
what news they brought. He said: "Yes, O Sultan, we traveled for a
long time until there appeared in the open sea [as it were] a river with a powerful current. Mine was the last of those ships. The [other] ships went on ahead but when they
reached that place they did not return and no more was seen of them and we do not know
what became of them. As for me, I went about at once and did not
enter that river." But the sultan disbelieved him. Then that sultan got ready 2,000 ships, 1,000
for himself and the men whom he took with him and 1,000 for water and provisions. He left me to deputize for him and embarked
on the Atlantic Ocean with his men. That was the last we saw of him and all those
who were with him, and so I became king in my own right.” From this account it is clear that Musa believed
that such an expedition was folly. This almost certainly explains why he did
not attempt to send out his own explorers or try to find out what had happened to his
predecessor and the many Malian ships. The vanishing of the fleet in the Atlantic
left Musa secure from the previous claimant to the throne. He followed tradition and selected his dyelis
from low social standing, creating a dependency which bought loyalty, while also redefining
old friends as equals. In the early years of his reign from 1312
to 1318 Musa won much loyalty and was viewed as a fair Mansa which was a much sought after
trait by his subjects, especially compared to the uncompromising approach Wati and Khalifa
had taken years earlier. Musa attempted to convert more people to Islam
and commanded the miners in the south of Mali to stop practicing pagan rituals, thus causing
the miners to go on what would now be called a strike. The miners were very much aware that their
efforts and mining knowledge allowed for all gold nuggets to go the Empire, while they
kept the smaller gold dust to themselves. Rather than pressing the issue with force
however, Musa showed understanding and reversed his decree with the miners, leading to a resumption
of mining operations and thereby avoiding a costly conflict. He also in this instance demonstrated courage
to publicly change his mind. Musa’s peaceful resolution with the miners
should not be viewed as a reluctance to use force to maintain law and order or to achieve
personal gains. As with his predecessors, Musa was an empire
builder who sought to increase the wealth and territorial limits of his Empire through
actions that ultimately favoured the ruling class. If the miners did not enjoy such a powerful
negotiating position then the outcome of their stand off with the Mansa could have been very
different as Musa had already shown a willingness to use force on other occasions. During the early 1300s bandits continued to
plague the trade routes and countryside across the empire and had stolen much wealth, sometimes
deterring any sort of travel unless heavily guarded. Musa introduced a zero tolerance policy towards
those bandits caught, which slowly began to bring the frequency of robberies under control,
with flourishing trade and a feeling of safety. The outcome of all of this meant that most
people across the empire lived peaceful lives with plentiful resources. With news now freely flowing in and out of
borders, the feeling of isolation in West Africa was replaced with intrigue and knowledge
of societies thousands of miles away and created the beginning of what some have compared to
the European Renaissance in 1400, where exotic goods came to market from as far away as China,
and people could be enlightened by stories from the wider world. However, the foremost means whereby Musa’s
kingdom flourished was through control of the Saharan trade routes, from Cairo west
to Mali and beyond the Ivory and Gold Coasts and from Benin and Niger in the south, north
through Mali to Morocco and Algeria. It was by dominating these routes and ensuring
that traders could travel through them peacefully that Musa built the Malian Empire up into
a signficiant regional power in the first half of the fourteenth century. One of the key trade routes that emerged as
a result of Musa’s military protection demonstrates a sophisticated network which encouraged traders
to take bigger and more lucrative loads. Linking the salt mines located south in Taghaza
with the gold mines north in Wangara saw the emergence of ‘port towns’ where goods
were traded and offloaded onto more effective means of transport. Camels were used in the southern desert while
donkeys were used in the north, the latter being largely immune to the tseste fly which
resided in the equatorial forests on the northern trade route. Port towns saw negotiations between traders,
with one source suggesting a pound of salt was equal in value to a pound of gold, though
this is clearly open to dispute, it reflected the vast supply of the precious metal that
Mali enjoyed. For Musa and the Empire, port towns were important
for ensuring tax was collected efficiently from both domestic and foreign traders. The rivers Niger, Gambia and Senegal also
ran through the Mali Empire and trade by boat was boosted through the organised and peaceful
trade routes which added further tax income to Musa’s already extraordinary wealth. While goods were traded such as millet, rice,
honey and dates, Musa was a fond horse rider and was also aware that they were useful in
warfare. He formed a strong fighting force with around
10,000 cavalry in his imperial army, the total strength of which was an estimated 100,000
men. It is estimated by some that Musa had the
third largest fighting army in the world at this time, after a small number of other states
such as China and the Mongol successor states of Central Asia. Using his own band of royal traders distributed
across the empire, the Mansa stipulated that their power to buy and sell would be first
in the queue, which effectively ensured the highest quality and required quantity of popular
assets such as Arabian horses and metals used for weapons were rarely in short supply. The Mali cavalry were equipped with copper
headpieces, chainmail and cushion tunics which they wore in tight formations on the most
reliable horses, effectively making them an elite and powerful unit. It is likely during the decade from 1314 to
1324 that Musa conducted raids and captured territory from neighbouring countries, with
some estimating he took around 6,000 slaves, while the Mansa himself allegedly boasted
of conquering 24 cities and surrounding districts. Of course campaigns like this required war
material. With a well-established culture of blacksmithing
and metallurgy in many parts of Musa’s territory, charcoal was needed to fuel smelting and the
smithing of new weapons. Large scale deforestation not only ensured
the continuation of production, but it also cleared vast amounts of land which allowed
cavalry units to move around more effectively. Blacksmiths were held in high social status,
with people often awed by what was seen as a gift from the traditional god Ogun, the
god of metal work. Where villages and towns did not have a blacksmith,
they would seek one from elsewhere with rewards for those who took the vacancies. This was the manner in which skilled craftsmen
were becoming favoured in Mali during Musa’s reign. With the evolution of weapons, military tactics
also evolved with the development of specialised units that could help give strategic advantage. River clans helped to move troops quickly
from one part of the empire to the other which reduced the response time in dealing with
potential threats. The Farimba were elite units that could be
called to assist local provinces under attack using a wide arsenal of weapons which included
poison arrows, poison javelins, knives, spears, and swords. Often at festivals elite fighters would display
their swordsmanship as it was viewed as an art in Malian society in addition to a military
technique. The Farimba were units comparable to European
Knights, commanding a unit of cavalry which were often deployed in offensive moves for
the Empire. For defence, troops had animal hide shields
and iron helmets, with the wealthier cavalry units often possessing the most effective
chain mail armours seen in all of north-western Africa. In 1324, about 12 years into his reign, Musa
undertook a 9,000 mile journey when he embarked to Mecca just as the first Mansa Sundiata
had done. This was the famous Hajj or pilgrimage to
Mecca, which all Muslims were required to do if they were financially and physically
capable of doing so. The Empire was at peace and through influence
and trade it was both larger and stronger than it had been prior to his reign, and so
Musa decided to travel via land rather than sea in order to demonstrate both power and
prosperity to the outside world. The pilgrimage would take Musa through one
of the world’s largest deserts, follow the coastline of the Red Sea and finally down
the Arabian Peninsula to Mecca. Some sources claim that Musa built a mosque
every Friday, and then continued on with his pilgrimage. This would have resulted in up to 2,000 mosques
over the course of his life, which would show not only his incredible wealth but also his
religious dedication. Critics of this theory point out that evidence
of these buildings no longer exists and it is almost certainly a myth, but the very fact
that such a claim could be made points to the piety of Musa. We know more certainly that many months of
preparation for the Hajj would have been required, and when all was complete Musa had mustered
an unprecedented 60,000 person entourage, which included around 12,000 personal servants,
8,000 soldiers, family members and many guests such as governors all the way down to working
people from within the Empire. While most pilgrims would complete the journey
on foot, Musa set off on a black stallion with gold trappings with the Mansa dressed
in a wide pair of trousers which were not only made from an exclusive lavish material
reserved for him, but through the width of material demonstrated his high social status
as per the custom in Mali. The crowd cheered the caravan farewell, beholding
a colourful spectacle with lavish bold colours and jewellery adorned by many, while in front
of Musa were 500 selected servants walking in a column and carrying splendid four pound
gold staffs while a number of guides were dotted around to navigate the route. Logistically it was a huge operation, with
hundreds of camels and horses extending for long lines, laden with supplies such as food,
water, tents, tools and clothing, while around 80 camels carried 80 pounds of gold each which
would serve as gifts or currency to resupply where required along the journey. As the sun set the caravan had left Niani
behind and was moving through the grasslands where Musa and his guard could peel away from
the main body on trips and easily re-join with their horses moving much quicker than
the main body. Watching lion cubs play, galloping alongside
antelope and amusing at the awkwardness of a young giraffe reaching down to drink water
were discoveries the Mansa delighted in while also meeting many people who watched the caravan
move. On one occasion, upon finding a Baobab tree
which were known to hold water in the soft bark, Musa discovered a man who had fashioned
a workshop within the tree where he loomed cotton in the cool of the shade which was
a story the Mansa retold, such was his curious nature and his interest in economic and technological
development. With the Sahara Desert replacing the lush
grassland, the first major challenge for the caravan was upon them as temperatures rose
to highs of 58 degrees centigrade and fell sharply below 0 degrees centigrade at night. In the barren landscape of rocks and sand,
each person required a gallon of water a day while camels drank 25 gallons in the space
of a few minutes storing it for many weeks. Wherever possible water supplies were topped
up at the few pockets of water that were discovered, with Musa’s servants undertaking continuous
loading and unloading of the pack animal supplies. Cooks would prepare each person a comprehensive
meal and even some entertainment paid for by Musa which helped the caravan make determined
progress across the 3,500,000 square mile desert, using stars and wind markings in the
sand to guide them. Coming from Niani to Walata, on to Taghaza
before passing by Tassili n’ ajjer and then through Ghadanes the caravan continued enroute
to its first major stop at the great Egyptian city of Cairo. Musa and his entourage were excited having
heard much about the city from traders. Most people from Mali had only dreamt of visiting
the vibrant city which enjoyed a population of around a million people at the time, making
it one of the world’s great metropolises in the fourteenth century. Dressed in luxurious clothes, Musa entered
the city in July 1324 via the western gate and was met with amazement as the busy streets
opened up a channel for the mysterious foreign contingent to walk through with their leader
walking slowly on his horse. As gold glistened, the event was a spectacle
never seen in Cario and the Egyptian official meeting the caravan apparently compared it
to the glittering glory of the African sun itself. The ruling Sultan Mamluk invited Musa to a
grand celebration, but the situation was initially awkward as the traditional sign of homage
dictated that the Mansa would have to kiss the Sultan’s hand or the ground by his feet. Musa refused this to his advisors, declaring
he was a pilgrim and was only paying homage to Allah, while also aware that his Mali Empire
was vast and many times wealthier than that which the Sultan ruled over. With some well-placed guidance, disaster was
averted when Musa kissed the ground and praised Allah before the Sultan, thereby compromising
in a way that left both men satisfied. The two leaders conversed and feasted, with
gifts exchanged and Cairo hospitality provided in the city for the entire caravan which was
gratefully received and they rested in the Qarafa district where Musa befriended the
governor Ibn Amir Hajib. The caravan rested for around three months
allowing the intense summer heat to pass by and during this time the natives were impressed
by Musa and learnt much about his trustworthy character and the powerful empire he had ruled
for over a decade and which was prospering under his leadership. The Egyptians were awed by the Mansa and his
generosity when he gave gold as gifts in each part of the city he visited or stayed. Such was the supply of gold from Mali, that,
when combined with his generosity, the sharp influx of the precious metal caused a drop
in gold prices in Cairo which lasted for many years to come. Musa allegedly tried to combat the inflation
by buying back some of the surplus gold and this helped settle the market while emphasising
how much wealth the Empire had accumulated to be able to control foreign markets. With approximately 1,000 miles of travel still
ahead, the caravan set off from Cairo on the 18th of October 1324 into the desert between
the River Nile and the Red Sea to the east reaching the Gulf of Suez after a few days
before stepping into the continent of Asia for the first time. Trade routes met as they came to the north
of the Gulf of Aqaba, with Asians, Europeans and Africans all merging and Musa finding
himself fascinated with the variety of people he saw. Like many of the foreign pilgrims Musa came
across at this time, he planned his next major leg of the journey to stop at Medina, the
second great holy city of Arabia linked to the Prophet Muhammad. On arriving in the city, Musa visited the
Prophet’s Mosque where Muhammad was entombed while he also continued to have discussions
with foreign Muslim scholars with a passionate desire to enlighten his understanding and
knowledge. After travelling a final 240 miles, the long
caravan was drawn out in segments with Musa being one of the first who spotted Mecca from
the rugged hills that approached the city, noting the Great Mosque nearby the sacred
black stone ‘Kaaba’ which was the religious epicentre established by Muhammad for the
Islamic world. Upon entering Mecca, 12 days of the Hajj began
with Musa following the custom of wearing a simple white garment and removing all jewellery,
which effectively relinquished his status as ruler temporarily in order to become a
brother of fellow men and women of the faith. Prayers, celebrations and rituals filled the
days which reached a peak on the ninth day when Musa joined other pilgrims on the Mount
of Mercy. At some point during the Hajj in Mecca a fight
nearly started between a group of Malian and Turkic pilgrims, with swords drawn in the
Masjid al-Haram, but Musa’s typical diplomacy defused the situation before it escalated. At this stage gifts were still being given
out by the Mansa to many inhabitants of Mecca itself and such conflicts were rare, with
most pilgrims impressed by the generosity of the Malians and the softening of local
inconveniences that inevitably arose with the arrival of such a grand cohort of people. Three days of feasts brought the pilgrimage
to a close, and Musa kissed the sacred black stone once more, only this time he was a ‘haji’,
which was a title given to those who completed the pilgrimage which was viewed as the greatest
earthly achievement. Many accounts suggest that Musa enjoyed the
conversations and prayers with the people of Mecca and found them so fulfilling that
he wanted to live the rest of his life in the great city, but reports coming from his
Empire back home in Mali prevented him from doing so. Musa’s son Maghan was the caretaker Mansa
at this time, but reports were suggesting that his youth and inexperience were leading
to difficulties back in Mali, with further news that conflict had broken out with the
neighbouring Songhai people in what are now northern Burkina Faso and western Niger. The Songhai were keen to build their own empire
at the expense of the Malians. Accordingly, preparations for the long journey
back to Mali began, with Musa opening an invitation to many local scholars and descendants of
the prophet, known as shurafa, to join him and return back to Niani to help build and
bless his Empire. One who accepted was Abu Ishaq As-Shaili,
a popular poet and architect often referred to as ‘The Moor’ who had become very close
to the Mansa before accepting his offer. Upon setting off, they spent much time conversing
around Musa’s plans for Mali, which he hoped to realise while ensuring preparing his son
for succession, before ultimately returning to live the life he now desired in Mecca. By the time the caravan reached Cairo, news
of their first visit had spread far across the known world, with European and Asian traders
and explorers waiting to see Musa’s wealth first hand. Many were there to try and unlock and perhaps
enjoy the wealth of the secret trade routes which were hidden by the Sahara and by the
very protective West African traders keen to protect their monopolies. To maintain secrecy, traders who knew how
to reach the gold mines of Mali would never meet with fellow merchants in person. Using drums to communicate and negotiate,
supplies and payment were left on the outskirts of forests which meant the gold routes were
left unknown to the wide world. In addition, Christians were restricted and
could not travel the Muslim Kingdoms of Africa because of conflicts through the Crusades,
and so Mali was known as wealthy and powerful but its whereabouts was not accurately mapped
by Europeans for several centuries yet to come. As the caravan made its way to Cairo there
were reports of some Malian pilgrims dying from the cold temperatures, through starvation
or at the hands of bandit raids which were impacting supplies and proving difficult to
defend given the enormous distance the caravan of people had travelled across. The second stay at Cairo was therefore brief,
and Musa used it as a pragmatic resupply of essentials before the second challenging trek
across the Sahara. Due to stories of his immense wealth and abundance
of gold, haggling for these supplies often ended in extortionate expense with Musa having
to rather embarrassingly loan money at a high interest rate as he had spent much of the
gold bank carried by his servants. For every 300 dinar borrowed my Musa, he would
go on to pay back 700 dinar when he reached his central funds back in Mali, with many
traders seeing the leader of Mali as rather naïve to the market rate of certain goods. Many of Musa’s wives had travelled with
him which was customary, and his senior wife Inari Kunate complained of her discomfort
having been smothered in the dirt and dust as they set off through the desert sands,
while she allegedly had a dream of a river placed in front of them in the Sahara by the
grace of Allah. While camped one night, Musa responsed to
his wife when he instructed one of his head servants Fabra to organise a trench 1,000
metres long to be dug with a surrounding wall for discretion, before filling it with water
from a nearby oasis. Using wood rubbed in kharite nut oil, a smooth
channel kept the water in what resembled a river in the desert much to the amazement
when Inari woke along with her 500 women in waiting who all went ahead and plunged into
the water. Slowly the caravan continued across the desert. One day in 1325 a messenger rode to Musa from
the city of Gao and reported that of Musa’s generals, General Saghmanja, had captured
Gao from the Songhai and was now ready to accept surrender of their other territories. Although prior to his pilgrimage Musa’s
forces had led successful military campaigns such as taking Walata and Teghazza salt mines,
this recent victory by his General was the most sizeable gain made to the borders of
Mali. Although Musa did not accomplish this conquest
in person, it was an indication of the strong position he had left Mali in when he departed
on the Hajj that Saghnmanja was able to defeat the Songhai in this way. Other accounts play down the victory, suggesting
it was more likely to have been a recapture of the rebellious vassal city of Gao, with
Mansa Sakura the initial conqueror of these lands. Whatever the circumstance, it was important
and fed a desire in Musa to become personally involved in this great victory, consequently
instructing his guides to change his returning route and take the caravan south to Gao where
he would receive the submission direct from the King of Songhai himself. Some theories suggest that Musa had always
planned to annex Gao and the Songhai lands, but in a display of political intelligence
he waited to send orders to do so until he was on the return leg of his pilgrimage, as
he was aware of his Moroccan neighbours’ ambitions to invade those areas. Egypt, Morocco and the Empire of Mali were
at this time jostling for control of the lucrative trade routes of North Africa and Musa showed
a desire to maintain diplomatic relations rather than force a long and damaging war. As was typical in his military victories,
Musa let the defeated kingdom continue to run their own internal affairs, while Mali
would control military and foreign affairs with a tribute from the vassal state also
agreed formally. As such this was a form of decentralised,
feudal rule. To the inhabitants of Gao, the sheer number
of people arriving in the lavishly dressed caravan, led by the Mansa riding proud on
his black stallion, would have left them in no doubt of the sheer power that those who
had conquered them possessed. Musa was a good diplomat who realised that
insulting the defeated King would serve no useful purpose, and so negotiations were respectful
albeit dictated by the Mansa. These saw the Songhai Empire absorbed into
the Empire of Mali with a large proportion of the city enslaved and sent to work in mines
or for military service, although they could eventually purchase back freedom with wages
should they wish. As was common, two children of the Songhai
king would also be taken as ‘well treated hostages’ when Musa came to leave, but not
before he explored the city. Upon discovering the main Mosque in Gao had
a straw roof, Musa summoned his architects and tasked them with building a mosque which
would possess more beauty and extravagance. With the design and construction, it was through
this new mosque that Musa introduced a new style of architecture to this part of Africa
which saw a tall sun-dried bricked building of a kind soon to be called ‘Malian Style,’
a type of architecture that would be admired for hundreds of years thereafter. With thick walks that ensured the buildings
were kept cool, and easily reparable palm beam and mud-based building materials, the
urbanisation of smaller communities brought a better quality of living for many. With this done, Musa led the caravan out of
Gao and tfollowed the River Niger further into the old Songhai Empire which the Malians
had now conquered, and soon found another key city which was now part of their Mali
Empire and which was at its peak. Mansa was said to be impressed with the position
of Timbuktu which saw busy merchants travelling up and down the water carrying goods and people
on traditional flat-bottomed canoes up to 66 feet long. As in Gao, Musa was not impressed with the
city’s mosque and once again planned the building of the Djinguereber Mosque, along
with the development of an educational establishment here, the forerunner of the University of
Sankore which became a renowned establishment of learning for black African scholars alongside
students from as far away as Europe as the city blossomed into a centre of Islamic education
as well as a trading centre. Musa staffed the university with jurists,
astronomers, and mathematicians while he cemented his rule over the city by building a palace
for himself using architects from the Spanish Andalusia region. The architecture of the mosque and educational
establishment is worth elaborating on. It was built almost entirely of earth, straw,
fibre and other organic materials. Only the minarets were apparently reinforced
using limestone blocks. Despite this, the interior and the three courtyards
were able to fit in the region of 2,000 people. Moreover, even though it has experienced some
damage over the centuries, the mosque is still substantially intact today and is a UNESCO
World Heritage Site. It is a striking statement about the ingenuity
of the Malians in the early fourteenth century that they were able to build such a cleary
robust and sturdy complex out of such rudimentary materials in a way which has nevertheless
allowed it to stand the test of time. This would become one of the crown jewels
of Musa’s new city, Timbuktu. Its capture in the mid-1320s led to it becoming
the foremost city of the entire empire as Musa identified it as being of immense value
in its domination of the trade routes across the region and also its ancient heritage. A settlement had existed here since the fifth
century BC, during which era it had probably benefited through second-hand or third-hand
trade with the Romans of Mauretania to the north. The settlement thrived in the first millennium
BC on the back of new trade connections to the Arabs and Berbers of North Africa, but
also because of the development of extensive gold mines and saltpans neareby. Its location some nine miles away from the
Niger River gave it river access, while it was far enough from the core of the Sahara
Desert in cooler medieval times for it to be a centre of agriculture as well. More sombrely, it was also a major centre
of the trans-Saharan slave trade in ancient and medieval times. Thus, the new city which came under Musa’s
rule in the mid-1320s was one of the most important trading and cultural centres in
all of north-western Africa. His decision to make it an education and religious
centre assured for it the reputation which it holds as a heritage site down to the present
day. Along with his wife and a selected number
of people, Musa decided to complete the final leg of the journey back to Niani via purpose-built
barges which meant it was a more comfortable leg of the journey. Arriving at the capital, the Mansa was met
with celebration and much joy, with stories of the pilgrimage preceding Musa’s arrival
and stirring his subjects joyfully. True to his word, in the months that followed
Musa together with many of his new foreign friends went about developing the capital
and built the Hall of Audience which was adorned with arabesques of bold lavish colours with
gold window frames, all cut with stone and surmounted with an impressive dome. Smaller projects were also completed, with
a visiting Italian scholar named Sergio Domain later remarking how the 400 cities in the
Empire of Mali were upgraded and as a result enjoyed dense populations and prosperity. Musa spent a lot of time after his return
speaking with Mahghan and his senior governors, perhaps reaffirming his desire to prepare
his son to become Mansa full time so that he could return to live the rest of his life
in Mecca. However, with fulsome first-hand accounts
of his successor’s poor leadership now coming to light, Musa knew his plan to leave Mali
would risk the collapse of what was now one of the biggest empires in Africa. Through a network of regional governors, supervisors,
city leaders and diplomats the local leaders were largely content within the empire, although
sporadic conflict had to be occasionally dealt with such as the Kingdom of Mossi invading
Timbuktu in 1330 which was quickly taken back by the Mansa and reinforced with a stone fort. Having accepted that he would need to stay
in Mali, Musa immersed himself into the exploration of science, arts, history and Islamic studies
which he had discovered on his pilgrimage. Many more mosques were commissioned to be
built which became small centres of education, and the population of the Empire became more
literate and enlightened, with students now remaining rather than being sent to Morocco
as was tradition. The Empire was no longer cut off from the
world by the Sahara as the pilgrimage created strong ties to Egypt and foreign embassies
combined with traders seeking fortune had ensured a continuous exchange of dialogue. Musa had put Mali on the map in what would
become known as the Golden Age, and although the attention from outside was beneficial,
it also created some awkward conversations such as when the Sultan of Egypt asked the
Mansa where the vast gold supplies he had displayed in Cairo came from back in his homeland. Ever the diplomat, Musa would respond to such
challenges with the story that the gold grew on plants in a corner of his Empire and that
those people that grew it possessed strange powers which protected their harvest from
outsiders who, if they were to come and pick a plant, would cause the plant to wither and
die. Musa was politely telling people that the
supply of gold would continue from Mali, but outsiders should not attempt to interfere
with it. The location of the mines were to remain a
secret and the topic should be dropped. It is believed that in around 1337, aged around
57 years, Mansa Musa died of unknown causes, having just sent an envoy to his Moroccan
counterpart, Abu al-Hassan Ali, to congratulate him on his conquest of Tlemcen in Algeria
in May of that same year. It is believed that Abu al-Hassan’s reply
was received after Musa had died, while other sources suggest his death was actually five
years earlier in 1332 and the congratulatory envoy was in fact sent by Musa’s successor
Maghan. Some suggest Musa left behind at least four
wives and multiple children, as it was tradition to support multiple wives and often illegitimate
babies were born, however only the existence of his spouse Inari and his heir Maghan were
sufficiently documented. In what was a break with tradition, Musa picked
his son and not his brother Sulayman to succeed him, which raises many questions on the political
situation at the time. With Maghan acting as heir when Musa was on
pilgrimage, this suggests that this succession was probably not a surprise to many people,
however it could also be argued that many regional leaders would have looked at the
new Mansa with some level of disapproval. Ultimately, Maghan was Mansa for just four
years following the death of his father, with the most significant development in 1340 when
the Songhai in the East of the Empire asserted independence from Mali having been previously
subdued by Musa. Meanwhile, raiding parties from Mossi horsemen
from the Upper Volta saw Timbuktu terrorised along with surrounding cities. Maghan averted losing the cities but the security
that was enjoyed during his father’s reign had already degraded by the time Musa’s
only recorded sibling Sulayman succeeded to the throne in around 1341. Reigning until his death in around 1359, Sulayman
was widely regarded along with Musa to have overseen the Empire of Mali at its peak, continuing
foreign diplomatic relations with regions such as the Marinid Sultanate and other north
African kingdoms. Some accounts suggest Sulayman did not have
the influence that his brother built, and in around 1352 he accused his principle wife
Qasa of conspiring to overthrow him, which reflected divisions in his court and amongst
local leaders. Sulayman died in around 1359 with his son,
who was also named Qasa, succeeding to the throne, but only reigning for nine months
before his cousin and Maghan’s son Jata led a successful rebellion in what became
a civil war. In the conflict and the confusion that followed,
the vassal state Jolof took the opportunity to break-away from the Mali Empire. By 1360 Jata was Mansa, with accounts suggesting
he was a poor leader, with the North African historian Ibn Khaldun recording much that
is known about his reign and with many pinpointing this time as the beginning of the Empire’s
decline. More Mansas followed, but while they still
held onto a large territory, it was shrinking in influence and power and from 1507 neighbouring
and emerging empires in the region, such as Diarra, Great Fulo and Songhai, begin to take
and raid lands. Attempts by the Songhai to take Niana in 1542
were repelled, before Mansa Mahmud III was forced to flee the capital and the attacking
leader Kurminafari Dawud sacked the city before ordering his men to use the palace as a place
to defecate, a sign of the humiliation of the once great Malians, although the city
was eventually won back. Counter-attacks were attempted to retake the
fragmenting lands, but the heart of the Empire continued to be attacked and in 1670 the capital
was sacked and burned by the Bamana. Some suggest that the sheer power and size
of the Empire of Mali at its peak had created complacency, with no major military setbacks
for generations, while Musa’s pilgrimage had inadvertently advertised the riches of
the state to outsiders and turned it into the prey of neighbouring kings. The loss of Niani proved fatal and in 1672
the Keita Dynasty had retreated to the town of Kangaba where they became provincial chiefs,
while the Empire dissolved into independent chiefdoms with the Golden Age now but a chapter
in history. The legacy of Mansa Musa is often centered
around his wealth, with the figure of $400 billion accepted by many to be his comparable
wealth in 2023 if one adjusted for inflation and other factors, which would make him not
only the richest person alive today but also the richest person in recorded history, greater
than the likes of John D. Rockefeller, Elon Musk or Jeff Bezos. However, the reliability of these calculations
is challenged by many scholars, as not only does it make assumptions on gold supplies,
but it is also compiled using historic sources that are often not scientific in their approach. Mande oral tradition was the responsibility
of a griot, who would discuss history, tell stories, write poetry and perform theatre
for their communities in West Africa with very little documentation of facts completed. As a result, much of what we know about Musa
came from Arabic sources and the Mansa’s wealth was formed from perception following
his pilgrimage as opposed to someone witnessing first-hand the extent of his gold reserves. Some of these sources were also produced decades
after Musa’a reign and were based more on popular belief than any real form of scientific
evaluation. Conflation has also caused debate when looking
at historical sources connected to Musa, as his name appears to be associated with a Mande
figure known as Fajigi which is translated to ‘father of hope’. Fajigi also went on a pilgrimage to Mecca
in order to retrieve sacred objects known as boliw, but with limited evidence some argue
the oral tradition has merged the two figures into one person. Both Musa and Fajigi were also sometimes blurred
with Mansa Sunjata’s top General known as Fakoli, with traditional and Islamic beliefs
combined in his story with the common fact that all three men embarked on a pilgrimage. In other sources, Fakoli and several other
figures who travelled to Mecca have been referred to as Musa with the symbolic or simply erroneous
swapping of names causing much confusion for historians. Musa’s infamous wealth and the specific
timeline of many key life events remain unknown, but we know he took an impressive pilgrimage
to Mecca which put the Mali Empire on the map for many people residing further afield. In 1375 the most significant map of the Middle-Ages
was commissioned and named the Catalan Atlas, which displayed a picture of Mansa Musa holding
a gold object and a caption that refers to him as the richest and noblest of all these
lands due to the abundance of gold. We also know that his character was generous
and just, with his gift-giving and successful leadership during the Empire’s peak the
predominant evidence for this. Displaying diplomatic understanding in addition
to mastering several languages suggests the Mansa was an intelligent man who made calculated
decisions which bought loyalty. The wealth of his empire was certainly a major
factor in his rule, but he should also be understood as a successful ruler in other
respects. For instance, adding Gao and Timbuktu to the
Malian Empire was an episode of considerable importance, as was his establishment of a
university in the latter city. This was one of the great cultural centres
of western Africa for centuries to come and indeed Timbuktu has gone done in history as
a quasi-fabled city in Saharan Africa, in a large part owing to the manner in which
Musa developed it during his reign. It is hard not to think that his experiences
on the Hajj shaped how he went about this. Musa was profoundly impacted by his experience
in Mecca, coming back with a new entourage of experts who worked on many developments
with an architectural style alien to most parts of Western Africa. Still relevant today, Musa’s story has inspired
his inclusion in computer games such as the Civilisation series, while in the 2018 film
Black Panther, Musa’s legacy inspired a character in what was a Hollywood success
making over $1.3 billion at the box office. We will never know all the facts about Musa,
but history will continue to remember him for both his wealth and his successful leadership
of the people living in the great Malian Empire. Popular culture in the 21st century even sees
a track called Mansa Musa appear in the third album of rapper Anderson Paaks, where the
artist talks of his great wealth and power. And so, Mansa Musa continues to live on through
both fact and folklore as a quasi-mythological ruler around whom so many myths and tales
have been built up. What do you think of Mansa Musa? Is he one of the most significant figures
in West-African history? Please let us know in the comment section
and in the meantime, thank you very much for watching.
