The chariot was the tank of the Bronze Age,
a mark of power and strength that dominated battlefields from the sands of Mesopotamia to the
forests of Britannia. At the battle of Kadesh, the oldest recorded battle in human history,
thousands of chariots clashed on either side. Yet from the ashes of the Bronze Age collapse and
with the rise of Assyria, the once mighty chariots were labelled obsolete and replaced by the
practicalities of massed cavalrymen. But what led to the decline of this once-great vehicle of war?
Perhaps it should be expected that the chariot would eventually be surpassed,
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together. See you on the battlefield! Way back in the 2nd millennium BC, the heart of
the Mediterranean Bronze Age, chariots served a similar role as the heavily armoured and mounted
knight did in the middle ages. Chariots formed the backbone of the bronze age army and constituted
their most elite units. The first chariots emerged in ancient Sumeria during the third millennium
BC, and similar designs were quickly developed in other regions. The Sumerians were the first
to experiment with its use in warfare through the introduction of the Sumerian war cart: a primitive
proto-chariot that featured a wagon manned by two soldiers and pulled by horses. This war cart was
a largely ineffective vehicle, for it was a slow, cumbersome, and impractical contraption for
the battlefield. Despite this, the concept of the chariot spread rapidly, particularly
among the nomadic peoples of the steppe, including the early Indo-Europeans, who leveraged
it extensively in warfare, allowing them to spread their culture and language across Eurasia. One
group of Indo-Europeans, the Hittites, are often credited with being the first nation to use a
proper chariot on the battlefield at the siege of Salatiwara in the 18th century BC. However,
the historical account is somewhat ambiguous with regard to the description of forty "teams''
of horses used in the battle. Nonetheless, subsequent centuries would witness the emergence
of more detailed accounts of chariot use. This includes written testimony of a man named Kikkuli,
who was an 'assussanni,' or master horse trainer of the Hurrians, who specialized in conditioning
horses for chariot use. The Hittites themselves were pioneers in the realm of chariot technology,
they developed vehicles with lighter wheels, equipped with four spokes instead of the
conventional eight, and designed to bear the weight of up to three soldiers, with
the wheels placed in the centre to do this. The war chariot would take on many regional
variations depending on the bronze age nation which developed them. In the wake of the Hyksos
invasions of 1650 BC, the Egyptians created a lighter, more mobile version of the war vehicle
than the heavy shock chariots the Hittites used. These vehicles were more flexible and were
possessed of great skirmishing capabilities, although they were ill-suited to melee combat.
These chariots would also be extensively used by the Assyrians, especially in the final chapters of
the bronze age, and by the Mitanni. In Mycenaean Greece, the chariot had a more ceremonial role.
The mountainous landscape of Greece made chariots impractical for actual battlefield use. However,
they still had an important symbolic use as the vehicle which carried heroes into battle. Indeed,
in Homer’s Iliad, the chariot was the vehicle that Achilles rode into battle and paraded Hector’s
dead body around the walls of Troy. In the far east, the chariot was no less popular. The vehicle
would see use in China, with traditional sources suggesting its first use was during the Xia
dynasty, dated to around 2000 BC. However, archaeological evidence of the Chariot dates
back only to 1500 BC, during the Shang period. The chariot held such a profound significance
across various cultures that it found its way into the mythologies of many civilizations. Within
Indo-Iranian societies, gods were often portrayed as riding in chariots, with the Vedic Sun God
Surya commanding a one-spoked chariot and the King of Devas, Indra, also frequently depicted
atop a chariot. The chariot's influence is also evident in the mythologies of the Greeks,
Egyptians, Norse, Iranians, and many others, where it plays a pivotal role in shaping
the beliefs and stories of these societies. The late Bronze Age marked a golden era in chariot
warfare, at Kadesh 5,000 chariots participated in the great battle with the pharaoh, Ramses,
himself astride a magnificent horse-drawn war cart. The battle was a veritable showcase
of two distinct styles of chariot warfare, with the Hittite shock chariots storming the
Egyptian line and the Egyptian light chariotry flanking the Hittites and unleashing intense
missile fire upon them. Kadesh was not an outlier, for in other contemporary conflicts,
such as the Hittite sack of Babylon, the battle of Megiddo, and the Hyksos invasion
of Egypt, the thundering of chariots arguably played the most decisive role in those
campaigns. Across the vast expanse of China, a parallel evolution of chariot warfare was
unfolding. During the fall of the Shang dynasty, the Battle of Muye saw a similarly impressive
showcase of chariots, with King Wu leading a charge that shattered the Shang lines and marked a
defining moment in the history of chariot warfare. Despite its significance, however, the
chariot gradually declined after the Bronze Age Collapse. This cataclysmic
cocktail of environmental disaster and invasions of mysterious ‘sea peoples,’ which
occurred at the turn of the 1st millennium BC, left the prosperous empires of the near east in a
state of disrepair and thus economically incapable of sustaining large chariot forces. Though the
Early Neo-Assyrian monarchs brought about a brief restoration of these vehicles , a revolution
from the grassy steppe lands of the north would forever alter the course of warfare. While various
factors contributed to the decline of chariots, the most significant one was the rise of cavalry.
Although horses had been ridden since as early as 5,500 BC, it was not widespread until a stronger
horse breed more suitable to support the weight of a full-grown man emerged through centuries of
selective breeding. Breeding horses that are large and strong enough to be ridden into battle
requires significant genetic manipulation, and maintaining the breeding lines in sufficient
numbers to create a formidable military force demands considerable social capital. Hence, it was
not until the end of the Bronze Age that horses could be ridden directly into battle.
Cavalry, as a fighting force, had many advantages over chariots. They were
highly mobile and could move more quickly, giving them an edge in battle. They required
only a single horse and rider, with the rider, unlike a chariot’s pilot, also being able to
fight. Moreover, horsemen were more flexible and versatile, able to navigate difficult terrain
with comparative ease. In contrast, chariots were highly vulnerable and resource-intensive. The
wheels could be easily broken or stuck in the mud, making them a liability on rough terrain.
Additionally, chariots were extremely expensive, requiring multiple horses and soldiers to
operate, while the death of a single horse could compromise the vehicle, making it
precarious in battle. All this meant that cavalry was a more affordable and adaptable force
that could be utilized more effectively in battle. Thus, from its birthplace in the steppe, the
innovation of horse riding would spread far and wide. In the Near East, the Assyrians were the
first major state to begin adopting such tactics, gaining access to war horses from raiding
Scythian tribes, their own vassal states, and their own budding industry of horse breeding.
Experimentation with cavalry had begun by the turn of the 9th century BC, yet the Assyrians had
no experience in cavalry warfare, and as such, their first attempts proved somewhat clumsy. The
early Assyrian cavalry used the same strategies as the chariotry did, with two men per horse,
one to control the reins and the other wielding a ranged weapon, meaning the Assyrian cavalry
arm lacked mobility. This inexperience also meant that the Assyrians would still use chariots
extensively. It would take two centuries before they really mastered horsemanship so they could
phase the chariot out entirely. Only during the reign of Tigaleth-Pileser III in the late 700s
BC did the chariot become somewhat antiquated, with Assyrian horse archers figuring out how
to shoot from horseback and control the animal simultaneously, and the Assyrian shock horsemen
equipped with heavy lamellar armour and lances able to inflict significant damage to enemy lines.
In the centuries following Assyrian domination, other states were compelled to adopt cavalry
tactics to keep up with military advancements. In China, this development would occur later,
around 200 BC. During the Qin and Han dynasties, the chariot would be steadily replaced: originally
by horse-riding mercenaries from the steppe tribes which bordered the Celestial Kingdom, and later,
after the extensive training of riders and breeding of mounts, by homegrown Chinese cavalry.
The integration of cavalry into ancient Chinese warfare was made possible by the efforts
of numerous reformers. King Wuling of Zhao, who often fought against the mounted steppe
tribes to his north, was among the earliest to recognize the potential of cavalry in
battle. Later, the King of Chu, Xiang Yu, emerged as a skilled commander who leveraged
the mobility and speed of cavalry to devastating effect. He deployed a highly mobile cavalry
force during the battles of Julu and Pencheng, using them to defeat much larger enemy forces.
The decline of the chariot was expedited due to another key advancement, the increased
professionalism of armies. Bronze Age armies mostly consisted of militia forces, and due to
the expensiveness of the titular metal of the age, were lightly armoured, if at all, making them
fare poorly against large vehicles moving at high speed. Yet, as armies became professionally
equipped with stronger iron weapons and armour while being drilled in more complex formations,
the shock effect of the chariot waned. In China, by the fall of the Shang dynasty, there was a move
away from massed militia armies with an increasing focus on discipline and organization. At Muye, the
vast Shang horde disintegrated under pressure from the organized and professional Zhou army, while
similar results were witnessed in later battles, such as at Yanling. During the Warring states
period, massed infantry armies were drilled in complex formations such as the square
(fang 方), round (yuan 圓), dispersed (shu 疏), dense (shu 數), awl (zhui hang 錐行) and
many others. This, along with better armour and weaponry, meant that infantry
was more resilient to the chariot attacks. The increased professional nature of armies
can be observed in Assyria as well. As the empire expanded further, the Assyrian army became
spread thin, and its capacity to operate across the breadth of its territories declined. So it was
during the reign of Tigaleth-Pileser III that a standing army was introduced, which was expanded
to include many foreign soldiers who were trained and drilled in the same formations and stratagems,
and equipped with the same armour and weaponry as their Assyrian counterparts. A high level of
discipline and precision was instilled among them and demonstrated during their manoeuvres,
starkly contrasting the relatively disorganized and freewheeling manner of previous armies. The
introduction of a highly developed and effective command structure allowed for a more streamlined
and coordinated approach to battle . In addition to this, the Assyrian army was well-protected and
well-equipped , with iron weaponry and armour. The use of iron swords, iron spear blades, iron
helmets, and even iron scales sewn as armour onto their tunics was highly effective in warding
Assyrian soldiers against physical harm. Moreover, the remarkable level of discipline displayed by
the Assyrians rendered psychological warfare, which had proven so effective in the Bronze Age,
ineffective. Moreover, the well-armoured and dense Assyrian formations could easily absorb chariot
attacks, while their increased organizational flexibility allowed them to manoeuvre around
such assaults deftly. This superiority was displayed during the Assyrian invasion of
Urartu under Tigaleth-Pileser III, where the Assyrian army was easily able to overpower the
army of Urartu and its chariot corps, crushing the state and ending the Urartu golden age.
Advancements in missile technology were another critical factor in the decline of chariots.
Chariots proved to be exceedingly vulnerable to arrow fire, with the death of even a single
horse capable of derailing their advance and leading to their destruction. During the Iron Age,
missile technology underwent several improvements, such as the use of iron, a stronger and
more abundant material than the soft and scarce bronze that was previously used. Bronze's
rarity meant that showering enemies with fire wasn't financially feasible, and missile fire
had to be economical, a restriction which was no longer in place in the iron age. In addition,
the development of more powerful bows provided an effective countermeasure against chariots. The
composite bow had been developed by 1700 BC, but its use among infantry only became widespread
during the early Iron Age. The composite bow had a much longer range than previous bows, capable of
firing arrows between 250 to 600 metres, making it highly effective at countering chariots. The
Assyrians, Egyptians, and Chinese, among others, all adopted the use of the composite bow. The
Assyrians, in particular, placed priority on missile troops, with each archer accompanied by a
shield bearer for protection. This combination was used to great effect to hammer the enemy line, and
could quite effectively eliminate chariots. This key Assyrian tactic was recorded by the emperor
Sennacherib: 'At the command of the god Ashur, the great Lord, I rushed upon the enemy like the
approach of a hurricane...I put them to rout and turned them back. I transfixed the troops of
the enemy with javelins and arrows.’ Meanwhile, the Chinese developed advanced crossbows, which
were highly effective against chariots when used en masse. Evidence of their use dates back to
650 BC, with the states of Chu and Wei having elite crossbow units equipped with heavy armour,
helmets, side swords, and large crossbows carrying 50 bolts. During the Han dynasty, the usage of
crossbows increased, with the inventory list recording nearly 540,000 crossbows in stock.
The crossbows had a range of up to 450m and high armour penetration capabilities, making
them capable of taking down chariots with ease. By 500 BC, the chariot had all but disappeared
from the battlefield, rendered ineffective by the advent of cavalry, the more advanced equipment
and training of soldiers, and more effective missile technologies. However, it did still exist
in some capacity as a specialist unit. The Scythed chariot, for instance, was a modified war chariot
with long rotating blades attached to its wheels, intended to maim anyone it passed. Despite its
fearsome reputation, the Scythed Chariot had a mixed service history, with only a few instances
of success. One such occasion was recounted by Xenophon, 'Putting the chariots in front, and
following behind them himself with the cavalry, he ordered a charge. The chariots dashed into
the Greek ranks, broke up their close formation, and the cavalry soon cut down about a hundred
men.' And yet, the scythed chariot failed on nearly all other occasions, for a prepared army
could easily repel them, at Gaugamela Alexander simply had his lines open with the chariots
of the great king passing harmlessly through during the battle of Magnesia, the Seleucid
scythed chariots were sent fleeing into their own lines by intense missile fire and Roman
pilum drove off a Pontic chariot attack at Zela. The only other holdout for the chariot
was in the misted isles of Britannia, where they dominated its forests. Having likely
spread from Etruria to the Celtic peoples across Europe, it would reach Britain's shores. While
Europe at large would shift towards cavalry, the island's isolation meant a unique evolution of
the vehicle. They served as platforms from which missiles could unleash fire and as quick
transportation for infantry to deploy and quickly retreat . Yet though the famed British
war chariot proved effective at harrying the Roman army once it landed, when fighting against
Roman steel on the battlefield of battle, they could not overcome the well-drilled infantry.
Thus once Roman rule had been introduced, even this last bastion of chariot warfare would fall.
The chariot was once a formidable weapon of war that dominated the Bronze Age battlefields. From
its early beginnings with the Sumerians and the Hittites, the chariot evolved into various
forms, with each civilization from China to Britain leaving its mark on this iconic weapon.
At the height of its popularity, the chariot was a symbol of power and strength that struck
terror in its enemies, as evidenced by the great chariot battles of Kadesh, Qaqar, and Muye.
However, with the collapse of the Bronze Age and the rise of cavalry, the chariot gradually fell
out of use. The impracticalities and expenses, ineffectiveness against professional forces,
vulnerability to missile fire and the horse's rise marked the end of its illustrious service history.
Despite its gradual decline, the chariot remains an important part of ancient military history,
a testament to the ingenuity and innovation of those who developed this legendary weapon.
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