The woman known to history as Hatshepsut was
born in Ancient Egypt in approximately 1507 BC. Her father was Thutmose I, a Pharaoh of the
18th Dynasty who ruled mainly from the city of Thebes, which is now in the modern city
of Luxor on the River Nile, 500 miles south of the Mediterranean Sea. Thutmose I was a renowned military leader
and oversaw the vast expansion of the Ancient Egyptian Empire eastwards into the Levant
and southwards into Nubia, now northern Sudan and southern Egypt. He was likely the son of the previous Pharaoh,
Amenhotep I, and a secondary wife, but the Egyptians did not create family trees so identifying
blood relations can be difficult. Her mother was Ahmose, the principal wife
of Thutmose I but it is not known who Ahmose’s parents were, although it is highly likely
that she was born into the royal family. Egyptologists have argued that she was the
daughter of Pharaoh Amenhotep I, making her the sister and wife of Thutmose, something
that was common within the royal family, however she was never given the title of King’s
Daughter, instead, she was referred to as the King’s Sister, suggesting she was the
sister of either Amenhotep’ or Thutmose. Ahmose and her husband Thutmose I had two
daughters - the eldest of whom was Hatshepsut - and no surviving sons, which would become
a problem for the dynasty. Hatshepsut was only the second historically
confirmed woman to rule Egypt with the full titles and power of a Pharaoh. She belonged to the 18th Dynasty which ran
from 1507 BC to 1458 BC and she ruled for over two decades, from 1478 BC to 1458 BC. Hatshepsut lived over 3,500 years ago and
to put into perspective how long the period of Ancient Egyptian history is, Hatshepsut
lived over 1,000 years after the building of the Pyramids of Giza and 100 years before
Tutankhamun, 200 years before Ramesses and 1,400 years before the most famous female
Pharaoh, Cleopatra. Little is known about Hatshepsut’s childhood
but her name, which means “Foremost of Noble Ladies”, highlighted her prominent position
within the royal family. She certainly would have had important royal
duties to fulfil, including being involved in religious rituals. She was known to worship the cow goddess Hathor
in particular, who was the goddess of love, beauty, music, dancing, fertility and pleasure
and was also the protector of women. There were 42 state gods and goddesses in
total in the Ancient Egyptian Religion, the most important of which was Amun-Ra, the sun
god, creator who was later seen as king of the gods. As the eldest daughter of the Pharaoh, Hatshepsut
would have been expected to marry the next Pharaoh - a tradition which aimed to keep
the royal bloodline “pure”. And so at around the age of 12, she married
her half-brother Thutmose II, becoming his principal wife. As Thutmose II was younger than Hatshepsut,
she perhaps took over the reins of power in her husband’s name when their father, Thutmose
I, died in 1493 BC. By the time Hatshepsut came to full power
in around 1478 BC, Egypt as a unified country was already 17 centuries old as legendary
king, Menes, had first ruled a unified Egypt in around 3100 BC. As it is today, the land of Ancient Egypt
was made habitable by the River Nile which cut through the desert and gave the names
to the two regions of Egypt: Upper Egypt (which was up river in the south) and Lower Egypt,
(down river in the north, around the Nile Delta region). The King (or Pharaoh) ruled both regions,
with the title of King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Lord of the Two Lands. But there were distinct differences between
the two areas. They had different protector goddesses - Nekhbet
the vulture goddess in Upper Egypt and Wadjet the cobra goddess in Lower Egypt. The regions were also represented by different
symbols - the lotus for the Upper and the papyrus for the Lower, which were often tied
together to symbolise unity. In those periods when Upper and Lower Egypt
were united, there was huge prosperity and astonishing cultural achievement, they were
true golden ages. The first golden age occurred during the period
of the Old Kingdom (2649 BC - 2100 BC) - this was the age of the pyramids. Disintegration and competing dynastic families
brought this golden age to a temporary end - a period called the First Intermediate Period
from 2181 BC to 2055 BC. The Middle Kingdom from 2030 BC to 1650 BC
was the second golden age - a time when Egyptian culture and literature flourished. This period of growth had begun with the reunification
of Upper and Lower Egypt by Mentuhotep II, however the beginning of the end of the Middle
Kingdom was caused by a break in the royal line. Female Pharaoh Sobekneferu died in 1802 BC
without any heirs, resulting in the collapse of the successful 12th dynasty. The next two dynasties, which overlapped,
proved weak. The 13th dynasty was forced to retreat southwards
towards Memphis and failed to prevent a breakaway dynasty forming. The breakaway 14th dynasty reigned separately
over the Nile Delta region simultaneously. The Second Intermediate Period from1650 BC
-to1550 BC which followed saw Egypt once again divided. In the north, the Hyksos Dynasty arrived from
western Asia and its six kings ruled as the 15th Dynasty. In the south, the Kingdom of Kush, an early
civilisation in the region of Nubia, northern Sudan, expanded its reach. In the middle sat the Egyptian kingdom of
Thebes, or the 16th Dynasty and the17th Dynasty. It was during the 17th Dynasty that war was
launched against Hyksos rule, who were eventually pushed out of Egypt by the Thebans of the
17th Dynasty. It was at this time that Upper and Lower Egypt
were reunited by Ahmose I of Thebes in 1550 BC and the third golden age began. This brought Ancient Egypt full circle as
another Theban - Mentuhotep II - had united Upper and Lower Egypt at the start of the
Middle Kingdom too, also triggering a golden age. In reunifying the country, Ahmose became the
founder of the New Kingdom and the first king of the 18th Dynasty - to which Hatshepsut
also belonged. As the period of foreign rule in Egypt came
to an end, Egypt began to build up its own empire. During the Second Intermediate Period, the
Kushites had raided the south, prompting the Egyptians to expand further south into Nubia. The Kingdom of Kush was firmly pushed back
under Hatshepsut’s father, Thutmose I, around 1500 BC and the earlier defeat of the Hyksos,
during the Second Intermediate Period, saw the New Kingdom of Egypt expand into the Levant. It was during this time, just before Hatshepsut’s
reign, that the Egyptian Empire attained its greatest territorial extent. Hatshepsut was directly related to these empire-expanding
Pharaohs. As well as her father Thutmose I, Hatshepsut
was a blood relation of Ahmose I, the unifier of Upper and Lower Egypt and the first ruler
of the New Kingdom but although they came from the same dynasty, tracing their family
connections is difficult. Ahmose I’s son - Amenhotep I - was his successor,
but after that the historical record becomes unclear. Amenhotep I was succeeded by Thutmose I, but
Thutmose never used the title King’s Son, which puts a question mark over his connection
to Amenhotep. Some Egyptologists have argued that Thutmose’s
wife, Ahmose, was Amenhotep’s sister, making Thutmose his son-in-law rather than biological
son. Or he might have been Amenhotep’s son born
of a lesser wife which would have restricted his use of the title King’s Son. It is also possible that Thutmose was a general
chosen by the heir-less Amenhotep to rule, however a violent coup can be ruled out as
an explanation as the records suggest a peaceful transition of power occurred. Dynastic problems did not come to an end after
the accession of Thutmose I. A recurring issue was that sons born to secondary wives and
any female children were not considered ideal heirs. Thutmose I and his principal wife, Ahmose,
had no surviving son - only two daughters, of whom Hatshepsut was the oldest. Thutmose I did have a son - Thutmose II - with
a secondary wife, Mutnofret and it was thought best, according to tradition, that Thutmose
II be quickly married to his half-sister, Hatshepsut. This would bolster the credentials of Thutmose
II and preserve the direct royal line. Egyptologists of the past have presented Thutmose
II as weak and frail. This presentation was not necessarily rooted
in fact - it was fueled by a determination to present Hatshepsut as domineering. A shrewd Hatshepsut was supposed to have manipulated
her ineffective husband and essentially ruled in his name. However public monuments paint a different
picture. A dutiful Hatshepsut is shown standing behind
her husband, showing appropriate fealty to him, as the Pharaoh but the limited scale
of Thutmose II’s building program hinders a deeper understanding of his reign and the
power his wife held. Thutmose II ruled only for a short time after
his father’s death. He was succeeded by his wife and half-sister,
Hatshepsut, for the same reason he himself had almost been passed over - the lack of
a son born of the principal wife. Just like his father, Thutmose II did have
a son with a secondary wife, Isis. This child - Thutmose III - could not immediately
take the throne because he was very young. And like with the accession of Thutmose II,
there was some concern over the child’s status as the son of a secondary wife. The weakening of the direct royal line was
a concern that could not be easily overlooked. Instead, as tradition indicated, Hatshepsut
was to rule as co-regent for the young boy - a role which soon grew to that of a co-ruler. There had been precedents of widowed principal
wives ruling as regents and dutifully handling the affairs of the government for their young
sons but the short life span of Ancient Egyptians meant that young rulers and the requirement
for regents was not unusual. And Hatshepsut’s royal credentials as both
daughter and wife of past Pharaohs were unimpeachable. Thutmose III was recognised as king from the
beginning of this co-regent period which ran from 1478 BC to 1473 BC. Monuments from the time show the child king
in the form of an adult (as was traditional), performing royal duties and rituals. Hatshepsut, dressed in royal female garb,
is depicted off to one side, demurely watching over her step-son but Hatshepsut’s rise
to full power was not inevitable at the start of their joint reign. It was only several years later that Hatshepsut
began appearing on monuments in the costume of the male Pharaoh, indicating a change in
status. The first example we have of this gender-swapping
power-dressing comes from the 2nd year of the co-regent period, with Hatshepsut depicted
in the Karnak Temple Complex in Thebes wearing the robes of a female ruler but the crown
of a male king. This slow adoption of the symbols of the Pharaoh
suggests that her rise to power was gradual, rather than an abrupt coup. In around 1473 BC, Hatshepsut took on the
title of King of Upper and Lower Egypt and the regalia and other formal titles of the
Pharaoh of Egypt. This was a permanent promotion - Hatshepsut
could not step down when Thutmose came of age, as the role of Pharaoh was a life-long
responsibility. Pharaohs could not abdicate or rule temporarily. But even at this time, when her power was
at its height, she ruled as a co-ruler with Thutmose III. The reasons behind Hatshepsut’s decision
to take on the full titles of kingship are lost to history. She may have been acting to safeguard the
throne for Thutmose III as the deaths of Thutmose’s mother Isis and Hatshepsut’s mother Ahmose
removed the remaining links to the previous royal generation and perhaps left Hatshepsut
feeling exposed. Although 19th- and 20th-century Egyptologists
were keen to present Hatshepsut as an ambitious, cunning woman with an unnatural hunger for
power, there is little evidence to support this view. It was more likely that Hatshepsut’s instinct
was to continue to rule as co-regent, in the name of Thutmose III. Ruling with the full power of the Pharaoh
and in her own name would have been a great risk, given the existence of a legitimate
heir and the limited precedence of female Pharaohs. But a political crisis - perhaps a threat
from an alternative branch of the royal family - forced her hand. She could not rule for Thutmose with the title
of King’s Mother because he wasn’t her son. His own mother Isis had been unable to take
on the King’s Mother title because she had no royal blood. Between her own gender, Thutmose III’s young
age and his limited legitimacy as the son of a secondary wife, Hatshepsut’s options
for establishing stable rule were very limited. In the end, she was the best placed to rule
as the daughter and principal wife of two Pharaohs and the holder of the influential
religious title of God’s Wife. The title of God’s Wife of Amun had given
her authority even before her elevation to co-regent or co-ruler. It was this title that won her the support
of the priests. The God’s Wife led festivals to the god
Amun, one of the primordial Egyptian gods who was later merged with the ancient sun
god to become Amun-Ra, and assisted the high priest in his sacred duties at the Great Temple
of Amun at Karnak. She was held in high regard because it was
believed she had direct interaction with Amun, who was revered in Thebes as the creator god
and, later, king of the gods. The God’s Wife had enough influence and
power to dictate policy as Ancient Egypt was a priest-led society, where religion and government
were deeply intertwined. Hatshepsut was the last God’s Wife for many
decades, perhaps because the role bestowed enormous power, privilege and wealth on the
woman who held this title. Hatshepsut’s experience leading religious
rituals and working closely with the priests stood her in good stead for the duties of
a Pharaoh. As well as leading religious processions and
festivals, Pharaohs had a more direct divine responsibility. Ancient Egyptians saw their Pharaohs as a
link between the gods and the human race. Pharaohs would be responsible for direct communication
with the 42 state gods and goddesses, and were charged with maintaining the cosmic order
established during creation, called maat. In many cases, Pharaohs themselves were seen
as semi-divine beings, with some believed to be born of Amun-Ra, including Hatshepsut,
and when they died would become fully-fledged divine beings. As well as the support of the priests, Hatshepsut
would have relied on the favour of the royal family and the courtiers. Arguments that the cunning Hatshepsut sought
to overthrow her step-son and rule alone are undermined by the fact that the Ancient Egyptian
royal family relied on the support of other elite groups. The risk of being overthrown would have reminded
Hatshepsut that she was answerable to others. It seems likely that the courtiers, as well
as the priests, supported Hatshepsut’s rise to power. Only 70 years before her reign, Egypt had
been divided during the Second Intermediate Period, with large regions ruled by other
groups, including the Hyksos in the north and the Kingdom of Kush in the south. Courtiers relied on the royal family for their
privileged positions and the loss of this royal line would have threatened their power
and caused widespread turmoil. Stability and prosperity were the aims of
the day and Hatshepsut, along with the shining legacy of her father, Thutmose I, seemed to
offer just that. There is no surviving evidence that suggests
Hatshepsut faced any major challenges to her reign. Although she technically ruled as a co-ruler
with her step-son, it was clear that Hatshepsut was in charge, with her step-son happy to
lead her army and not use this power against her. Despite 19th- and 20th-century attempts to
present this co-ruling duo as in conflict, with Thutmose seen as embittered by his step-mother’s
rising power, there is little evidence of this. The pieces of evidence which have reached
us in the present show a harmonious working relationship. While he grew up, Thutmose valued Hatshepsut’s
experience of ruling, including during her father’s reign while he fought in campaigns,
her guidance and her illustrious status as a direct descendent of the royal bloodline. Without the public and elite support Hatshepsut
had won, it is possible that the infant Thutmose would have lost the throne to another. It was perhaps the fear of her royal line
losing the kingship that encouraged Hatshepsut to become Pharaoh. Her claim to more power was supported and
she received the official regalia of the Pharaoh, including the Khat head cloth featuring the
uraeus, the rearing cobra, a traditional false beard and shendyt kilt. Many statues survive showing Hatshepsut in
this androgynous royal attire. In reliefs she is shown striding forward and
standing tall, as well as the traditional pious kneeling posture, rather than the demure
postures of Egyptian female figures. The feminine ankle-length dress and closed
feet stance are rarely used in images of Hatshepsut. Women could have high status in Ancient Egypt
and had legal rights to property, unlike in many other ancient and modern civilisations. There had been examples of powerful Egyptian
women, including Hatshepsut’s own mother, Ahmose, who wielded great influence as the
King’s Daughter. Throughout Ancient Egyptian history, many
mortal women were worshipped as goddesses and both before and after Hatshepsut women
reigned as Pharaohs. Khentkaus I, Nitocris and Sobekneferu had
all ruled in some capacity prior to Hatshepsut and Nefernferuaten, Twosret and Cleopatra
were just some of the important female rulers who came after her. But there was no word for Queen in Ancient
Egypt - King’s Wife was the title given to those who married the Pharaoh. The ruler was called the King or Pharaoh,
no matter their gender. And female Pharaohs, that is, women who ruled
fully, under their own name and with the regalia and titles of Pharaoh, were not common. Before Hatshepsut, there had only been Sobekneferu,
who had reigned 6 dynasties before her and had taken on the male title of king. As the office of Pharaoh was a distinctly
male one, adaptation was necessary for female rulers. The symbolism of Ancient Egyptian kingship
- the crook and flail, and the uraeus and masculine dress - was designed for male rulers,
given that the role usually passed from father to son. In the majority of the statues and works of
art that have survived until the modern day, Hatshepsut is presented as a masculine king. This was one of the reasons why it took Egyptologists
so long to identify her - hieroglyphic inscriptions said female king but the imagery was almost
entirely masculine. Presenting herself as a male king wasn’t
deceitful, it was tradition. Egyptian art often presented things as they
should be, rather than how they are. Older kings and infant kings, like Thutmose
III, were also presented as having youthful, trim, masculine physiques. She presented herself as other kings did. Relief scenes show Hatshepsut completing historic
kingly rituals, from making offerings to the gods and celebrating festivals to trampling
foreign captives in the form of a sphinx. Hatshepsut did not completely hide her femininity
as she took on the masculine attributes of the kingship. She replaced the traditional male titles and
epithets used on hieroglyphic labels on statues and reliefs with feminine variations. Her name was often followed up with “Daughter
of Re”, and the feminine word endings she used led to grammatical oxymorons like “His
Majesty, Herself”. In private spaces, statues of Hatshepsut depicted
her with a mix of male and female attributes. Two rare examples of these statues, now in
the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, show her with the masculine headdress of the
Pharaoh combined with an obvious feminine silhouette or even in full feminine dress. It was in public spaces, such as on the processional
way, that her statues presented her as a young king in the prime of life. When in sphinx form, kneeling or standing,
Hatshepsut’s statues sought to portray her as the ideal male king, she also called on
the religious aspects of the Pharaoh to bolster her legitimacy. She styled herself as Maatkare - meaning “Truth
is the Soul of the Sun God” - to emphasise her connection to Amun - one myth even has
her as the demi-god child of Amun. She aimed to highlight her moral responsibilities
as Pharaoh. Maat - meaning the truth, order and justice
bestowed by the gods - referred to her ability as the legitimate Pharaoh to communicate with
the gods. This title plainly said that she was destined
to help maintain maat and bring stability and prosperity to Egypt. Hatshepsut’s legitimacy was further bolstered
by the proclamation of the Oracle of Amun. The Oracle declared that Hatshepsut’s rise
to become Pharaoh was in fact Amun’s will. Hatshepsut promoted the words of the Oracle
by carving the following proclamation on many of her grand monuments: “Welcome my sweet
daughter, my favourite, the King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Maatkare, Hatshepsut. Thou art the Pharaoh, taking possession of
the Two Lands.” But even the Oracle’s words did not make
Hatshepsut lose sight of the fact that she was a co-ruler. She ordered a relief to be made to showcase
her rise to power which showed both herself and Thutmose III. This relief was placed in the Red Chapel,
a sacred building in the sanctuary of Amun-Ra at the Temple of Karnak which housed the Userhat-Amun
- a golden boat used by the god Amun to travel around). Both she and her co-ruler Thutmose were presented
as men, but Hatshepsut now took the place of precedence. The words of Amun, via the Oracle, and this
visual representation of her power in a place sacred to Amun emphasised her divine right
to be Pharaoh. To highlight her legitimacy, Hatshepsut also
emphasised her connection to her father, Pharaoh Thutmose I. She appeared to idolise her father,
who had won fame for his military victories and expansion. When Hatshepsut was a young child, he had
returned from his victory against the Kushans in Nubia with the naked body of a Nubian chieftain
displayed on the prow of his ship. Thutmose’s expansion of the Egyptian Empire
had vastly increased its prosperity. By presenting herself as her father’s chosen
successor, she tied herself to his illustrious legacy and to a long line of successful Pharaohs
of the 18th Dynasty. However historical evidence to support Hatshepsut’s
claim of being her father’s named successor has not been found. The claim seems especially dubious given that
Hatshepsut was married to her half-brother Thutmose II to strengthen his claim as heir. Tradition dictated that sons, even those of
secondary wives, took precedence over daughters. Historically, women had only come to power
when no male successor was available. So it seems unlikely that Thutmose I would
have named Hatshepsut as his successor. But Hatshepsut ensured that her version of
history would persevere by inscribing her claim on the walls of her mortuary temple
at Deir el-Bahari: “Then his majesty said to them: ‘This
daughter of mine, Khnumetamun Hatshepsut—may she live!—I have appointed as my successor
upon my throne... she shall direct the people in every sphere of the palace; it is she indeed
who shall lead you. Obey her words, unite yourselves at her command.’ The royal nobles, the dignitaries, and the
leaders of the people heard this proclamation of the promotion of his daughter, the King
of Upper and Lower Egypt, Maatkare—may she live eternally.” Visual representations and inscriptions in
buildings were important parts of Egyptian history and successful kingship. Without these architectural works, little
would be known of Ancient Egypt today. But more importantly, building programs gave
the Pharaohs the opportunity for self-aggrandisement and legend-building. The achievements of the Pharaohs would live
on in their architectural works long after they were gone. And Hatshepsut understood this better than
anyone. Hatshepsut has been remembered predominantly
for her influence on the arts. Her reign saw a cultural renaissance that
was to have a lingering effect on Egyptian art and architecture for a millennium. She was one of the most prolific Pharaoh builders
with thousands of projects throughout Upper and Lower Egypt and especially around the
city of Thebes. Many temples were built to display her piety
and bolster her claim to semi-divine status as the God’s Wife of Amun. She also sought to promote her own accomplishments
and show off the wealth her policies had brought to Egypt. It was a chance for her to write her own story
and ensure that she would not be forgotten. Her buildings were of a much grander style
than her predecessors and were so impressive that later rulers attempted to claim them
as their own. She ordered the production of so much statuary
that every major museum in the world has pieces from Hatshepsut’s reign in their Ancient
Egypt collections, including a whole room dedicated to her pieces at the New York Metropolitan
Museum of Art. The vastness of her building and statuary
projects has left us important evidence about her as a ruler and about how she wanted to
be perceived. The grandest of all Hatshepsut’s building
projects was - as was traditional - the Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut, which still exists. Ancient Egyptian mortuary temples were not
so much about death, as they were a celebration of the eternal life of the Pharaoh and their
union with the god Amun. A mortuary temple was built for Hatshepsut
in the complex at Deir el-Bahari on the West Bank of the Nile River, across the bank from
the ancient city of Thebes and the modern city of Luxor. It was built into the cliff face looking towards
the Karnak Temple Complex on the opposite side of the Nile, where prestigious temples
and monuments had been built. She chose a site that would add to her prestige
- her temple was built next to that of Mentuhotep II, the first king of the Middle Kingdom and
the man who had reunified Upper and Lower Egypt. The plot had originally been quarried for
her father’s tomb. Hatshepsut linked her own mortuary temple
to that of her father’s, showing her devotion to him and tying their legacies together to
emphasise her legitimacy. She sought to present herself as the rightful
successor and dutiful daughter of Thutmose I. She even created a mortuary cult for him
in her temple and later moved his body there so that they would lie there together. Hatshepsut and her father Thutmose I were
not the only kings to designate their final resting places in this region. Hatshepsut’s mortuary temple was so illustrious
that future Pharaohs built their own mortuary temples near to hers, forming what is now
known as the Valley of the Kings. Architectural innovation dominated the design
of Hatshepsut’s temple. It began as a small project in the shadow
of Mentuhotep II’s tomb. The project grew into a large terraced monument
that had to be cut into the cliff face, showing impressive architectural skill. It was enormous - almost the size of two and
a half football fields. It featured so many colonnades and courtyards
upon its terraces that it appeared to rise up to the side of the mountain. Hatshepsut moved away from the fortress-like
designs used by her predecessors and pioneered a more ornate, aesthetically pleasing look. Her beautiful architectural style inspired
many future building projects and mortuary temples. Although many of the intricate elements of
her original design are now missing, there is enough evidence left behind to piece together
what the temple would have looked like in its heyday. The lower levels of her temple were softened
with luscious gardens and reflective pools. The myrrh trees from the famous trade expedition
she sent to the semi-mythical land of Punt were planted here to highlight her link with
the gods and the wealth and exotic goods she had brought to Egypt. The likeness of Hatshepsut appeared in the
temple’s design many times over. Over a hundred statues of the female Pharaoh
in the form of a sphinx lined the processional way. These Hatshepsut sphinxes were placed here
because the sphinx was seen as a spiritual guardian. This form also had the benefit of removing
any signs of gender - the sphinx was always the head of the Pharaoh and the body of a
lion, sometimes with the addition of falcon’s wings. More images of Hatshepsut were placed on the
temple’s terraces. Some of these statues were over 10 feet tall
and were intended to be seen from a great distance. Several show Hatshepsut in devotional poses,
such as kneeling amongst offerings to the gods or even taking on the appearance of Osiris,
god of resurrection. The majority of the statues of Hatshepsut
show her in a masculine light, in the appearance of the traditionally male Pharaoh. Many of them have survived - some whole and
some in fragments - into the present. The centrepiece of the project was the Djeser-Djeseru,
the Holy of Holies - the centre of the mortuary temple which was accessed along a large causeway. It was a symmetrical multi-columned structure,
similar in appearance to the Parthenon in Athens which was built nearly 1,000 years
later. The Djeser-Djeseru sat back in the cliff face
and at the top of the grand terraces. In the Djeser-Djeseru were altars to Amun-Ra
and to Hatshepsut, where her cult would continue to worship her even after her death. As well as their religious function, mortuary
temples would glorify the Pharaoh. The reliefs inside Hatshepsut’s temple celebrated
the achievements of her reign. The trading expedition to semi-mythical Punt
on the Red Sea was represented. On the relief sailors and traders load exotic
luxury goods onto the Egyptian ships, from panther skins to frankincense, as well as
the myrrh trees which were planted at the temple. The accompanying inscription reads: “Never
were such things brought to any king since the world was”. This relief showed Hatshepsut as a successful
economic and religious leader. The trading mission to Punt was just one of
many trade routes developed under her reign and the prosperity they brought to Egypt was
a significant part of the third golden age. It also showed Hatshepsut as a successful
religious leader as these new exotic goods were thought to be especially desirable to
the gods. Another significant relief showed Hatshepsut’s
divine conception and birth. Hatshepsut encouraged the narrative that she
was the biological daughter of the god Amun, who had appeared to her mother in the form
of her husband, Thutmose I. The later trend for emphasising a Pharaoh’s
divine birth is believed to have begun with Hatshepsut who needed to legitimise her claim
to the throne. Hatshepsut sought to highlight the sacred
link between the Pharaoh and the gods, in particular her personal link with Amun. It was the first time a Pharaoh had built
a mortuary temple which was primarily a temple to the god Amun. As well as the altar to Amun, new religious
rituals were established to celebrate Amun and his connection with the Pharaoh. For example, during a festival of the dead,
the cult statue of Amun was sailed across the river to spend a night in Hatshepsut’s
tomb. The religious rituals she created - usually
the privilege of male kings - would have been as important as the buildings she commissioned
and were clear evidence that she was the legitimate Pharaoh. The landscape of Egypt was fundamentally altered
by Hatshepsut’s building projects. As well as her mortuary temple in Deir el-Bahari,
she added and restored many more temples and monuments across Egypt. Monuments were constructed at the Temple of
Karnak, as was the tradition under most Pharaohs. The Red Chapel was built here, which was a
religious chapel dedicated to Amun and featured carvings showing key moments from Hatshepsut’s
life. A pair of obelisks were constructed to celebrate
her 16th year as Pharaoh. This momentous construction was commemorated
on a relief which showed the 450-ton obelisks being transported along the Nile by 27 ships. As well as telling the story of her reign,
the obelisks have allowed archaeologists a glimpse at Hatshepsutian architectural design
and construction. The discovery of the Unfinished Obelisk - a
broken version left in the quarry in Aswan where it was made - shows the hard work, craftsmanship
and innovation which went into creating these monuments. Hatshepsut also ordered the restoration of
great monuments. The Precinct of Mut - the mother goddess of
Egypt - had been sacked during the Hyksos occupation and was rebuilt under Hatshepsut. The new design featured twin obelisks at the
temple’s entrance that at the time were the tallest in the world. One of them still stands today and is the
second-tallest ancient obelisk still upright. The restoration of the Mut Precinct was a
building project so magnificent that later Pharaohs pillaged it for features to bolster
their own projects. Other important building projects ordered
by Hatshepsut included the Temple of Pakhet at Beni Hasan, south of Al Minya. The temple mixed the cultures north and south
of the area by being dedicated to both Bast and Sekhmet - two lioness war goddesses. Inside was a denunciation of the Hyksos by
Hatshepsut. In it she claimed that the Hyksos occupation
of Egypt had created a cultural decline that was reversed by Hatshepsut herself. The huge underground temple was admired by
the Greeks when they occupied Egypt during the Ptolemaic Dynasty as it bore resemblance
to their own hunter goddess, Artemis, and was renamed by them the Speos Artemidos. As with other impressive buildings, a later
Pharaoh - this time Seti I of the 19th Dynasty - attempted to wipe Hatsheput’s name from
the project and replace it with his own. Hatshepsut also devoted time and money to
public works programs. These works were mainly focused on the area
around Thebes, the dynastic and religious centre of the Thutmose-Hatshepsut era. A network of roads and sanctuaries were built,
which encouraged access to religious sites and were also used for royal and theological
processions. The transformation of the physical and ritual
landscape of Egypt was not Hatshepsut’s only accomplishment. She also brought huge wealth to Egypt by bolstering
its diplomatic and trading links and by being uninterested in expensive wars. This was important as her innovations in architecture
and ritual art required huge expenditure. It also pleased the elites who desired access
to exotic goods and wealth in order to display their status. Maintaining the golden age ensured Hatshepsut
the support and loyalty she needed to rule. Hatshepsut came from a line of economically
and culturally successful Pharaohs. Her ancestor, Ahmose I, had reunified Egypt
after the turbulent Second Intermediate Period, triggering a golden age, and her father, Thutmose
I, had strengthened Egypt, leaving her a prosperous and expanding nation to rule. Spurred on by the economic growth and stability
of the last few decades, the elites in Hatshepsut’s court began to develop a cosmopolitan outlook. An interest in the technological and luxury
goods in East Africa and Arabia belonged to the 18th Dynasty period as a whole, but was
particularly significant under Hatshepsut. There is archaeological evidence that new
goods arrived in Egypt during the early part of the 18th Dynasty, from new musical instruments
to oil. Hatshepsut supported this more outward-facing
world view and the desire for foreign goods by building and reforming foreign ties. She sent expeditions to foreign lands to the
south and the east and encouraged foreign embassies to visit with diplomatic gifts,
which increased her prestige. She built new trading links to gain access
to desirable goods, from frankincense, which was charred to make kohl eyeliner, to oil
and the latest military weapons. She worked to re-establish the trade networks
disrupted by the Hyksos occupation of Egypt. She was particularly interested in reopening
ancient trade routes as she sought to go back to the ancient traditions of kingship, ritual
and trade. Foreign trade was vital to a Pharaoh because
luxury goods were a symbol of royal power and legitimacy, but also had an important
religious aspect. Exotic goods, such as frankincense, which
was believed to make a place divine through its smell, and myrrh, were thought to impress
the gods, especially the god Amun, whose name was used to legitimise Hatshepsut’s trade
missions. Towards the middle of her reign, Hatshepsut
sent a large trade embassy fleet to the semi-mythical land of Punt. This fleet was made up of 5 ships at 21 metres
long each with several sails and 210 sailors. As Punt was located somewhere on the Red Sea,
perhaps in East Africa or Arabia, the fleet were required to flat-pack their ships and
carry them over 100 miles from the River Nile to the Red Sea. The expedition was successful and returned
with frankincense, gold, ivory, exotic animals, panther skins and, for the first time in recorded
history, live trees. The expedition was commemorated in a relief
at her mortuary temple and in many other tombs and temples on the west bank of the Nile. The prosperity which resulted from Hatshepsut’s
diplomatic and trading policies was unhindered by military expenses. Although her father had won fame through military
victories and expansion, Hatshepsut pursued a peaceful foreign policy. The only possible exceptions to her peaceful
reign were raiding expeditions to Byblos and the Sinai Peninsula and campaigns against
Nubia and Canaan. An early successful and short campaign in
Nubia is shown on a relief at Hatshepsut’s temple, though this militaristic relief does
not take pride of place. Hatshepsut’s foreign policy was directed
at diplomacy and trade. An important element in Hatshepsut’s success
was her astute selection of loyal officials. These handpicked officials controlled the
key government posts that were essential for effective rule, from diplomacy to monument
building. The most notable of these officials was Senenmut,
who, among many other titles, was the Overseer of all Royal Works. Senenmut came from a non-royal, non-elite
family and perhaps had a military background. He rose quickly within royal circles after
becoming the tutor of Hatshepsut’s daughter, Neferure. The number of his titles and responsibilities
increased dramatically - according to some Egyptologists he had as many as 93 titles,
including the prestigious Great Steward of Amun. His responsibilities in this important role
included taking care of the estates of the god Amun, which would have brought him huge
material wealth. As the Overseer of all Royal Works, he also
played a leading role in Hatshepsut’s building projects, including possibly designing her
mortuary temple. The trust Hatshepsut had in him is evident
in the responsibilities she gave him regarding her daughter, her most prized god and the
temple in which she would be laid to rest. Senenmut took advantage of his new wealth
and prestige by building himself two tombs and at least 26 statues - more than any other
non-royal. The masses of images and text about Senenmut
represented a huge diversion in the way non-royals were presented. He even had images of himself praying placed
in Hatshepsut’s temple, though they were hidden discreetly behind doors which would
have been left open when the public could enter the temple. For Ancient Egyptians, this merging of royal
and non-royal effigies in a sacred temple would have been unusual and even distasteful. As Senenmut never married, and Hatshepsut
didn’t re-marry after her husband’s death, it has been suggested that they were lovers. Three somewhat unconvincing pieces of evidence
have been used to support this claim. Firstly, the titles and honours Hatshepsut
bestowed on him, despite his non-elite status. Secondly, the fact that Senenmut’s name
features in Hatshepsut’s mortuary temple more than her husband’s name. And thirdly, a statue, now in the Neues Museum
in Berlin) showing Senenmut hugging a female child believed to be Hatshepsut’s daughter
Neferure. This third piece of evidence certainly highlights
an unusual bond between Senenmut, his royal tutee Neferure and Hatshepsut because non-aristocrats
were not allowed to touch royalty. However, there is no strong evidence to support
the argument that Hatshepsut and Senenmut had a physical relationship. While an example of temple graffiti showing
a sexual relationship between a man and a woman (who may or may not be wearing the headdress
of the Pharaoh) has been suggested as being Hatshepsut and Senenmut, there is no evidence
to support this identification. It is clear that Hatshepsut trusted and relied
upon her adviser Senenmut, and that he had successfully made a space for himself in the
close-knit royal family circle, but there is no legitimate evidence that they were lovers. After a long reign which spanned two decades,
Hatshepsut died in the 22nd year of her rule. Although the precise date of her death is
unclear, her successor, Thutmose III, recorded the start of his reign on the 16th of January
1458 BC. In that year he took on the title “Ruler
of Maat” for the first time, signalling that Hatshepsut had died. She is thought to have died in her late 40s
- and had lived what was considered a relatively long life in ancient times. No record of the cause of death has survived. It is believed that Hatshepsut was initially
interned with her father, Thutmose I, as she had wished. However, Thutmose I’s body was later moved
elsewhere by Thutmose III. Hatshepsut’s mummy was perhaps also moved
at this time, with her new location most commonly believed to be in the tomb of her nurse, Sitre
In. This change was perhaps ordered by Amenhotep
II, son of Thutmose III by a secondary wife, as he sought to secure his own uncertain legitimacy
to rule. Given this confusion, Hatshepsut’s mummy
has been difficult for Egyptologists to find. Her mortuary temple, recorded as tomb KV20,
did not contain any likely candidates. But in 1902 archaeologist Howard Carter, who
found the tomb of Tutankhamun, discovered a second possible location for Hatshepsut’s
final resting place - tomb KV60, which had been the burial place of her nurse Sitre In. This second site seemed to fit in with the
story of her body being moved to a more discreet location by her successors. Inside this tomb two female mummies were found
and one was positively identified as Hatshepsut’s nurse. The other was not identified. It was not until 2007 that archaeologist Zahi
Hawass released a statement to the scientific community claiming that this second female
mummy was indeed Hatshepsut. The process of identification was unconventional
as the DNA had not survived well enough for testing. Instead, a missing tooth in a box with Hatshepsut’s
name on it was reunited with this mummy - and it seemed to be a perfect fit. If this was Hatshepsut’s mummy, it can shed
some light on her mysterious death. This mummy showed signs of bone cancer - perhaps
caused by a benzopyrene carcinogenic skin lotion found with the body. Her family was said to suffer from a genetic
inflammatory skin disease, so perhaps the lotion had been used to soothe this condition. However, the tooth may have belonged to a
later royal lady of the same name from the 21st Dynasty. Equally, the hand position of the mummy was
that of a King’s Wife, not a pharaoh, which suggests it wasn’t her. In 2011 the identification of the missing
tooth was proven to be false. The tooth was a lower molar, while the mummy
from KV60 was missing an upper molar. Doubt was cast on Hawass’ theory. But calls for the DNA testing of the tooth
were halted by Hawass and the Cairo Museum, who wanted to protect it against the destruction
caused by the testing process. To further complicate matters, Hatshepsut’s
funerary furniture has been found at several different sites across the Valley of the Kings. These items included a wide range of goods
from a throne-like bedstead to red-jaspar game pieces, all displaying her favoured lioness
symbol, and a partial shabti or funerary figurine. The true location of Hatshepsut’s mummy,
if Hawass’ mummy is to be discounted, may simply never be found. Hatshepsut’s resting place has been hard
to find because, after two decades as Pharaoh, she disappeared from history. She is missing from the roll list of kings
and the scribes never mentioned her. Her many monuments and temples were ascribed
to later Pharaohs and she appears in vague references to a female ruler around that time
- sometimes as an “Amessis” or an “Amenenthe” - but her name had vanished. Hatshepsut was returned to history in 1822
AD when her name was found on a statue of what appeared to be a male ruler by Jean-Francois
Champollion, decipherer of the Rosetta Stone. The hieroglyphic inscription on this masculine
statue stated that it actually depicted a female ruler. The statue had been found in the inner chambers
of Hatshepsut’s temple at Deir el-Bahari - everything in the public-facing areas had
been completely erased. Even when Hatshepsut did appear in the historical
narrative around the 19th century, Egyptologists often described her as a usurper. She was seen as a manipulative woman with
an unnatural lust for power at the expense of her young step-son. She was interpreted as a “vain, ambitious,
and unscrupulous woman” by Metropolitan Museum curator William Hayes in 1953, who
excavated her funerary temple in the 1920s alongside curator Herbert Winlock. The scholarly consensus in the 19th and 20th
centuries was that Hatshepsut had seized power, rather than inherited it. Discoveries of pits full of broken Hatshepsut
statues in the 1920s and 1930s only encouraged the view that Hatshepsut had stolen the throne
from Thutmose III, who later avenged himself upon her legacy. The attack on Hatshepsut’s image seems brutal
enough to be personal. The heads of her statue had been severed and
the cobra symbol of royalty hacked from her forehead. The Pharaohs were regarded as god-like, often
as the physical representation of the gods, so this defilement was blasphemous. Other powerful women had been spared this
treatment. But Hatshepsut had ruled not as a King’s
Mother, as several other Ancient Egyptian women had, but as a female King. These Kings’ Mothers were honoured for generations,
often more so than the principal wife, showing that a woman holding power was not inappropriate
to the Ancient Egyptian mind. But female regnants and female Pharaohs were
hounded out of history. Perhaps because they were succeeded not by
their sons, but by others with weaker ties to the royal line and limited legitimacy. Destroying the public memory of these female
rulers would strengthen the position of these later kings. The attempted erasure of Hatshepsut from history
was carried out possibly towards the end of Thutmose III’s reign and more certainly
during the reign of his son, Amenhotep II. The erasure was carried out in a haphazard
way. Crude cover-ups and additions aimed to hide
her name and image by replacing her with Thutmose I or Thutmose II. Her image was chiselled off stone walls, her
name was removed from monuments and gaps left in works of art. Her statues were pulled down and smashed. In 1927 when curator Herbert Winlock discovered
a pit full of smashed Hatshepsut statues, he assumed this proved she had usurped the
throne and later been struck from history for this reason. The real reason why this incomplete rewriting
of history occurred is unknown. Answers posed by archaeologists have included
self-promotion and cost-saving. There was a tradition of rulers reusing the
grand burial monuments and statuary of older Pharaohs for themselves. It has been argued that Amenhotep II, as co-ruler
toward the end of his father’s reign, had ordered the defacing of Hatshepsut’s monuments. His legitimacy was perhaps questioned by Hatshepsut’s
legacy as he was not related to her and she held the purer line of descent from the great
old Pharaohs. He also broke from royal tradition by not
recording the names of his wives and ending the powerful roles and titles of royal women,
including that of God’s Wife. Older explanations that Thutmose III had co-reigned
with Hatshepsut unwillingly and had attempted to erase her from history out of bitterness
have since been overturned. Thutmose had the power, as leader of her army,
to overthrow Hatshepsut if he had so wanted. Even after her death, her images remained
in view on public buildings for 20 years during his reign. The haphazard nature of the erasures also
challenges the view that Thutmose was taking long-awaited revenge against Hatshepsut - the
masses of images of her would not have survived to the present if the motive had been hatred
and jealousy. Only the most visible, most accessible images
of Hatshepsut were removed. Access to her image was maintained beyond
the reach of the public eye. It has been suggested that her image and name
survived out of the public eye because whoever had orchestrated her erasure had wanted to
avoid sacrilege. Mortuary temples were built to honour the
gods, but also to provide a home for the cult of that particular Pharaoh. The cult of the Pharaoh would continue to
worship the Pharaoh after they had died, performing rituals which renewed the Pharaoh’s divinity. It was believed that after their death, Pharaohs
became fully divine and assimilated with Osiris, god of reincarnation, and Ra, god of the sun. Given this view of Egyptian kingship, whoever
erased Hatshepsut may have deliberately avoided tarnishing her divinity. Another theory was that Thutmose aimed to
relegate Hatshepsut to the position of regent - the traditional role of powerful women - in
order to safeguard future royal succession patterns. The achievements of Hatshepsut’s reign was
evidence that the traditional male role of Pharaoh could be successfully held by a woman. Hatshepsut proved - more so than other Ancient
Egyptian female rulers - that a woman could rule during a long, prosperous and expansive
period. It would also have simplified Thutmose III’s
own claim to the throne by implying that he inherited it directly from Thutmose II, the
named heir of Thutmose I. This would explain why only public celebrations
of Hatshepsut and her accomplishments were erased and why her name was removed from king
lists. If the reinterpretation was an attempt to
smooth the path for his son’s succession, this would explain why the attack on Hatshepsut
only began towards the end of Thutmose III’s reign. Whatever the motive, the brutal but haphazard
erasure of Hatshepsut resulted in an incomplete picture of her when she was rescued from history. The destruction of her image and monuments
has been dimly interpreted as evidence that she was a power-hungry woman who deserved
to be erased. But as cultural attitudes towards women in
power have changed, so too have views of Hatshepsut. Instead of asking how she had tricked her
way to power and manipulated her step-son, historians today debate the circumstances
which allowed Hatshepsut to come to power, her relationship with her co-ruler Thutmose
III, and why he might have tried to destroy her memory 20 years after her death. She broke tradition by ruling as regent for
a son who was not her own. She was only the second woman to become Pharaoh
and rule under her own name. She bolstered female kingship and built extensive
temples to publicly celebrate her reign. Many women went on to hold positions of power,
including becoming Pharaoh, after her. But she was perhaps given this power by men
seeking to further their own wealth and influence. Her heritage and her record as the God’s
Wife and as a placeholder ruler while her father was on military campaigns had perhaps
convinced elites that she was uniquely placed to rule Egypt at a time of prosperity. She was, as historian Kara Cooney states,
“the only woman to have ever taken power as a king in Ancient Egypt during a time of
prosperity and expansion.” And then she was erased from history. There is evidence to suggest that Hatshepsut
herself was conscious that her legacy might be deliberately buried. On a second pair of obelisks at Karnak, she
had the following inscription inscribed: “Now my heart turns this way and that, as
I think what the people will say—those who shall see my monuments in years to come, and
who shall speak of what I have done.” Although she temporarily disappeared from
history, and was not the most famous female Pharaoh (a distinction reserved for Cleopatra),
Hatshepsut arguably left the greatest cultural legacy of any Pharaoh. Her monuments and temples inspired thousands
of architectural works even after she was gone. Some of the greatest architectural wonders
of the ancient world, including her mortuary temple, were built during her reign. Masses of exotic goods, artefacts, artworks
and monuments found from Hatshepsut’s reign show that she laid the foundations of the
golden age of the New Kingdom. Ancient Egypt undoubtedly flourished under
her rule. What do you think of Hatshepsut? Was she an effective and legitimate ruler
or was she a scheming stepmother removed from history because she had stolen the throne? Please let us know in the comment section,
and in the meantime, thank you very much for watching.
