The man known to history as Emperor Caligula
was born on the 31st of August 12 AD in the Italian town of Antium. His father Germanicus was born in 15 BC, the
nephew of the future Emperor Tiberius, he rose to command the legions in Germany and
hold the consulship twice. He was popular with the soldiers and people
of Rome alike and was brought into the line of succession at Augustus’ request through
his adoption by Tiberius. Following his campaigns in Germany, Germanicus
was sent to the east by Tiberius where he later died in 19 AD. His mother Agrippina the elder was born in
14 BC and was the daughter of Julia and her second husband Agrippa, and granddaughter
of Augustus. She married Germanicus and they had nine children,
two died in infancy and one in early childhood. In the end, only four of her children would
outlive her. Like her husband she was popular with the
troops and with the people of Rome which caused an ever-widening rift between her and Tiberius
until she was eventually exiled in 29 AD and subsequently starved to death in 33 AD. Born as Gaius, Caligula spent his first years
in Italy, spending some of the time within Augustus’ household. When Germanicus left for Germany in 13 AD
and was joined by Agrippina, Gaius was sent to join them by Augustus in 14 AD, beginning
the journey in May. He quickly became favoured by the legions
and they nicknamed him Caligula or “little boots”, owing to the soldiers boots he wore
as part of his miniature legionary uniform that his mother dressed him in. For his part, Caligula is said to have helped
put down the mutiny among the legions in 14 AD, as when Agrippina was instructed to carry
him to safety to a nearby tribal settlement, it shamed the soldiers and peace was restored. The soldiers asked that both Agrippina and
Caligula return to camp, Germanicus agreed that Caligula could return but his mother
would remain absent for the remainder of her current pregnancy. Caligula likely remained in the camp until
Germanicus returned to Rome in 17 AD where he celebrated a triumph and Caligula rode
in his father’s chariot during the procession, along with his four siblings. When Germanicus was appointed to command in
the east, Agrippina and Caligula accompanied him. Their journey led them through the provinces
where they were received warmly, their progress resembling a triumphal procession. Arriving in Assos in modern day Turkey in
18 AD, Caligula, at only five years old, was said to have made his first speech. It is likely that when Germanicus visited
Egypt in 19 AD that Caligula accompanied his parents. When Germanicus died later that year on their
return, Caligula was part of the procession, alongside his mother, that brought Germanicus’
ashes back to Rome, arriving in Italy in 20 AD. Little of his education or other matters pertaining
to Caligula’s early years are known. It is likely that his education would have
followed that of other children of the senatorial class and while his brothers Nero Caesar and
Drusus Caesar assumed their places within the succession, at this point in time it seems
that Caligula didn’t figure into Tiberius’ plan. It was during these intervening years that
Sejanus rose to power, favoured by Tiberius. Relations between Agrippina and the emperor
continued to sour and following the death of Tiberius’ son Drusus the younger in 23
AD his suspicion of her and those around her grew. In 27 AD Tiberius had grown so suspicious
of both Agrippina and her eldest son Nero Caesar, no doubt fuelled by the manoeuvres
of Sejanus, that they were both placed under house arrest, which led to Caligula and two
of his sisters, Drusilla and Livilla, being moved to live in their great-grandmother Livia’s
household. His other sister, Agrippina the younger was
betrothed by Tiberius to Domitius Ahenobarbus, shortly after, in 28 AD during one of Tiberius’
returns to the mainland following his retirement from Rome. When Livia died in 29 AD it was Caligula who
delivered her funeral oration. Following Livia’s death, Caligula and his
sisters, were taken into the household of his grandmother Antonia, the daughter of Marc
Antony. Antonia was well connected throughout the
eastern provinces and it was while staying with her that Caligula began his lasting friendships
with three princes of Thrace. It has been posited that it was whilst living
with his grandmother that his incest with Drusilla began, however, modern interpretations
of the evidence now suggest that while Caligula was close to his sister, the charge of incest
amounts to little more than slander. How much contact Caligula had had with his
mother or brothers in the previous two years is unknown, however at the same time that
they were brought into Antonia’s household Tiberius had both Caligula’s mother and
elder brother Nero Caesar exiled and the following year saw the imprisonment of his brother Drusus
Caesar. With the machinations of Sejanus in full swing
by 30 AD, Antonia wrote to Tiberius. Although the contents of the letter are unknown
it seems to have had an effect on Tiberius and towards the end of the year he summoned
Caligula to Capreae, the island he’d retired to some years earlier. Later than usual, at eighteen years old, Caligula
assumed the toga virilis but without the honours that many of his predecessors had enjoyed
on their assumption. It may also have been at this point that Tiberius
began to turn against Sejanus and the possibility that Caligula may have become the next target
of his schemes against Germanicus’ family is not out of the question. However, it has also been suggested that,
in essence, Caligula, given his popularity as a son of Germanicus, was to serve as something
of a hostage and ensure he couldn’t be used against Tiberius. Perhaps even providing a stabilizing effect
for Tiberius’ position, given the bad feeling directed towards those who were perceived
as complicit in the downfall of Germanicus’ family. Early in 31 AD Caligula was granted a priesthood
on the recommendation of Tiberius. It is not known for sure what Caligula felt
in 33 AD, when his brother, Drusus Caesar was starved to death, followed shortly thereafter
by the death of his mother. Whatever he felt, he kept to his own council
and didn’t allow himself to be drawn in to making complaints or speaking out against
Tiberius. In fact, it has been suggested that given
the emperor’s feeling toward the other members of his family, Caligula adapted his behaviour
depending on the situation to avoid invoking the anger of Tiberius. Evidently Caligula succeeded in his attempt
to keep him on side, and although he cannot be said to have won Tiberius’ affection
neither did he do anything to provoke suspicion. In the same year as the deaths of his brother
and mother, Caligula held his first public office as quaestor when he was still below
the required minimum age and was granted the concession to hold offices five years before
meeting the age requirements, and although suggested for the position of augur was instead
promoted to the higher priestly college of the pontiffs. Later that year Tiberius arranged his marriage
to Junia Claudilla at Antium but the marriage didn’t last, as she died in childbirth the
following year. Following the death of his first wife, Caligula
possibly became involved in an affair with Ennia, the wife of the prefect Macro. The primary accounts differ in their explanations
of how the affair began but each paints a picture of the character of Caligula that
is typically known today. However, once again some modern re-examinations
of the evidence suggest that, while both Macro and Ennia were initially favoured by Caligula
and played their part in helping to secure his future succession, it is unlikely that
an actual affair took place. By 35 AD the succession had not been settled
by Tiberius who was by now in his mid-seventies. It was in this year that he composed his will
but did not definitively set out who was to succeed him, instead it seems the matter was
left open as he equally divided the imperial assets between his grandson Gemellus and Caligula. Many historians have suggested that this signalled
Tiberius’ wish that they become the joint heirs but as neither contender was officially
designated as the next emperor, it is likely that Tiberius was somewhat conflicted with
the choice, and Tacitus’ account that the emperor “could not summon the strength to
make a decision”, is most plausible. It has also been suggested that Tiberius feared
for the safety of Gemellus at the hands of Caligula which may have hindered him in making
a final decision. It was in 36 AD that Caligula came into contact
with Julius Agrippa, sometimes known as Herod Agrippa, grandson of Herod the Great, who
received permission to visit Capreae from Tiberius. Agrippa was supposed to have become a companion
for Gemellus but instead sought favour with Caligula. He flattered Caligula, extolling that he would
make a better emperor than Tiberius and when his words were later reported to Tiberius
he was arrested, Caligula however, faced no repercussions. By the time Tiberius died in March 37 AD in
Misenum the question of the succession was still open. Once again the primary accounts of Caligula
differ but all suggest that he played a role in the emperor’s death, alongside the praetorian
prefect Macro, although none of the claims can be substantiated. Whatever his involvement, or lack thereof,
the praetorians took matters into their own hands and proclaimed Caligula imperator on
the same day that Tiberius died and two days later when the senate declared their own allegiance
to Caligula, they declared Tiberius’ will null and void due to the unsound state of
the deceased emperor’s mind. Even before reaching the city, word was sent
by Caligula that Julius Agrippa should be released from imprisonment, into house arrest. Caligula accompanied the body back to Rome,
arriving almost two weeks after the death, at the end of March, where he was greeted
by “joyous crowds”. The senate then officially conferred the power
of the principate to Caligula, which he accepted, only refusing the title of pater patriae,
which he would accept later in the year. Caligula was now emperor at just twenty-four,
and while, as a son of Germanicus, he held the popularity of the people, unlike those
who would otherwise have succeeded Tiberius, he had no preparation for the position in
either governing or military command. Despite the senate declaring Tiberius’ will
as null and void, one of Caligula’s first acts as emperor saw him announce he would
honour the bequests of payment that Tiberius had made to the people and army. However, despite communicating with the senate
before his arrival in Rome, asking that Tiberius be deified, the motion was rejected and Caligula
didn’t pursue it. He also pronounced an end to the maiestas
trials, that is those trials dealing with claims against the Roman state, people or
Emperor, which had plagued the last years of Tiberius’ reign, proclaiming that any
exiled or imprisoned victims of the trials would be given their freedom, and all the
documents pertaining to the trials would be publicly burned, he also promised to work
with the senate. By this point Livia had been dead for nine
years and only now were her bequests granted by the new emperor, having been refused by
Tiberius. Caligula also added some of his own grants
which added to the wealth bestowed upon the praetorians and people of Rome and renewed
the games which had been few and far between, and recalled the actors, who’d been banished
from Rome under Tiberius. Soon after he delivered the oration at Tiberius’
funeral but said very little about the deceased emperor. However, early on he still had to deal with
the Parthians, who had been causing trouble in the East in the last years of Tiberius’
reign. The Parthians had been stopped in their advance
by the Syrian governor, Vitellius, whom had been instructed by Tiberius to make peace
with them, while still keeping a pro-Roman ruler on the throne of Armenia, which had
always been a source of contention for the Parthians. The candidate for rule under Tiberius, Mithridates,
was recalled by Caligula to Rome and imprisoned, and by not installing his own ruler, made
a concession to peace with the Parthians, although it went against the Augustan policy. Caligula also set out to honour his family
members and travelled to the islands where his mother and eldest brother had died. He gathered their remains with his own hands
and returned them to Rome via Ostia where they were carried through the crowded city
to Augustus’ mausoleum and interred within, the procession taking on the style of a triumph. A raft of honours followed for members of
his family, September was renamed after Germanicus, coins were minted to honour his brothers Nero
and Drusus, and statues of them were displayed in the city. He also laid out a decree that an image of
his mother Agrippina would accompany future processions and funeral sacrifices and that
games in her honour would take place each year. He then turned to the remaining living members
of the family. Antonia was granted the title of Augusta,
the same title Livia had borne during her life. His three sisters were made honorary Vestal
Virgins, although without the requirement of chastity, they were also to be included
in the oath of allegiance sworn to the emperor and were to be allowed to sit in the emperor’s
box during games at the Circus. To his uncle Claudius, he allowed him to take
his first steps into political life, which Tiberius had refused, when he was designated
to serve as Caligula’s colleague as Consul. He then adopted Gemellus, allowing him to
assume the toga virilis and granted him the title of princeps iuventutis, effectively
making him Caligula’s heir. But he went further still, forbidding all
honours for himself, including the displaying of statues in his image within the city. It was around this time that Julius Agrippa
was formally released by Caligula and was rewarded by being granted part of his grandfather
Herod’s territory, comprising Trachonitis, Gaulanitus and Batanea, that had been under
the purview of the governor of Syria since the death of the Tetrarch Phillip a few years
earlier. Agrippa was named as King, and the funds that
had been kept aside from the territories under Tiberius were granted to him. There is some suggestion that he may also
have received the territory of Abilene at this time. Another friend of the emperor, Antiochus,
had his father’s territory of Commagene returned to him, which had been brought into
the empire as a province by Tiberius. Caligula took up his first consulship on the
1st of July 37 AD, thereby allowing the previous consuls to serve their full term. When he assumed the office he gave a speech
in the senate criticizing and denouncing Tiberius’ actions. He also made changes to the way he would be
formally greeted in public, dispensing with the customary greeting. The consulship lasted just a couple of months
but during this time Caligula dedicated the temple of Augustus, of which construction
had begun during Tiberius’ reign. To celebrate the dedication a great banquet
and lavish games were held. Approximately 800 animals were killed in the
arena, for the entertainment of the people. There were also chariot races and Caligula
himself appeared driving a triumphal chariot. Both he and Claudius held the consulship for
only two months before resigning to allow those next designated for the position to
take up the role for the remainder of the year. Despite lacking the experience and age of
his predecessors, Caligula performed the role of emperor well in the early months, ingratiating
himself with the wealthy and plebian classes alike. However, his success cannot all be attributed
to himself, for Macro and his former father-in-law Silanus seem to have been instrumental in
guiding him, seeming to strengthen their own positions within his regime. But soon after resigning the consulship disaster
struck and Caligula fell ill sometime around September or October 37 AD and came close
to death, however it is unknown what afflicted him. The people of Rome were said to be grieved
by the news and nightly gatherings around the Palatine were observed. Caligula had no children but had adopted Gemellus,
and so Macro and Silanus, in an attempt to avert a succession crisis began to make moves
to ensure that, should the emperor die, Gemellus would succeed him. But it seems that Caligula had other ideas. It has long been asserted that of his three
sisters it was Drusilla whom Caligula favoured the most and had grown close to her second
husband Aemilius Lepidus. While still sick he chose Drusilla to inherit,
and while a woman couldn’t succeed him, her husband could. Caligula recovered and immediately set out
to remove Gemellus, who was accused of plotting against the emperor. Gemellus was forced to commit suicide but
not before being instructed on how to do it by the soldiers sent to see it done. Another incident that took place shortly after
his recovery tells of his attitude towards would-be flatterers, when he ordered two men
who had sworn oaths for his recovery to carry out their words. One had offered his own death in place of
Caligula’s, the other had sworn to fight as a gladiator if the emperor recovered, there
is some disagreement however, whether the two men actually died, or were merely submitted
to the humiliations of their intended ordeals. There is some dispute on the exact sequence
but shortly after Caligula recovered Silanus fell from his favour. His right to vote in the senate first was
rescinded when Caligula changed the procedure and there is some suggestion that Silanus,
remaining in Rome while Caligula travelled to recover his family’s remains aroused
his suspicions, thinking that Silanus wished to take over should the emperor not return
from the sea voyage. Whatever the true cause of his fall Silanus
took matters into his own hands and committed suicide. Then early in 38 AD Caligula moved against
Macro, who was appointed as the prefect of Egypt, and was replaced as praetorian prefect
by two men instead of one, of whom only Marcus Arrecinus Clemens is named, as Augustus had
done during his reign. But Macro never made it to Egypt and it has
been suggested by one historian that the appointment was merely a deception, similar to that that
Tiberius had engineered against Sejanus. The primary sources attest that charges were
laid against Macro and his wife Ennia and they both committed suicide. It was in the midst of these first deaths
that Caligula remarried late in 37 AD to Livia Orestilla who was already engaged at the time. But like his first marriage it didn’t last,
when they divorced a short time later. Livia was banished from Rome sometime following
the divorce although the date is uncertain. For the moment the business of ruling the
empire continued as normal. The New year oaths were sworn in 38 AD, but
Tiberius’ decrees were excluded and his ban on historical writings were rescinded
by Caligula. He also took the step of publishing the empire’s
accounts which had been supressed during Tiberius’ reign. He made changes within the justice system,
adding a fifth panel of senatorial judges to hear cases, and reducing the number he
would hear himself. Caligula also made reforms within the equestrian
class, allowing new members to be admitted, including men from among the provinces, since
reductions made during Tiberius’ reign had put a stop to new entrants, and those deemed
suitable could advance further still to hold a position in the senate. But Caligula went further still, abolishing
the sales tax across Italy, that had been introduced by Augustus and continued under
Tiberius, benefitting the lower classes. He also returned the election of magistrates
to the people which Tiberius had given over to the senate as per Augustus’ wishes. He held lavish games, going so far as to have
the floor removed from the Saepta, and flooding it so naval battles could be staged. Given the popularity of his policies early
on, the senate granted him a number of honours including giving the first day of his reign
the title of Parilia, which had come to be associated with the founding of Rome. Tiberius died leaving a particularly healthy
imperial treasury which Caligula made full use of during his tenure. Banquets in Rome were customary among the
upper class and were used as a method of displaying wealth and tastes, as well as affording appropriate
status to the attendees amongst their peers via their positions on the banqueting couches. However, Caligula, who had no precedent from
either Tiberius or Augustus on how formal imperial banquets should proceed, flouted
the wealth of the empire. Holding a string of opulent banquets, where
tradition was pushed aside in order to give his favourites, including his sisters, positions
of honour around the table. It is said that at one of these banquets he
drank vinegar in which pearls had been dissolved, and that food would be served covered in gold
leaf, in outrageous displays of wealth. In another affront to tradition, and despite
the earlier warnings of Macro about etiquette, Caligula invited guests that many would deem
unsuitable, such as the charioteer Eutychus, whom he gifted with two million sesterces. But despite his affront to tradition early
in his rule it was still deemed an honour to be invited to Caligula’s banquets. But his spending didn’t stop at banquets. Caligula himself was a great fan of gladiatorial
games and theatrical performances. He frequented the Circus Maximus, spending
much time with the team of the Green faction, but would also spend time in the company of
actors and mimes. One mime in particular, Mnester would later
be called Caligula’s lover, given the amount of time they spent in each other’s company. Rules surrounding entertainment were relaxed,
and under Caligula men of the aristocracy of Rome acted in the performances, something
that had been prohibited under his predecessors. The frequency of games and performances increased
dramatically during his rule, whereas they had been hugely scaled back under Tiberius,
it seems that Caligula with his own love of the popular entertainments indulged at every
opportunity. He was even known to train and fight with
gladiators. He also extended the Saturnalia festival to
five days. However, as much of the entertainment was
provided by elected praetors, it was the senatorial class who came under the burden of most of
the expenses, rather than the emperor. As well as lavish entertainment, Caligula
embarked on both public and private building projects, which had been much curtailed under
Tiberius, although most would be unfinished by the time of his death. Of the public buildings he began were an amphitheatre,
the Aqua Claudia and Anio Novus aqueducts, and a harbour at Rhegium, as well as dedicating
the theatre of Pompey, which alongside the construction of the temple of Augustus had
been in the process of renovation under Tiberius. But he also wasn’t afraid to build for his
own pleasure either. On the Vatican Hill, he built his own stadium
for chariot racing known as the Gaianum and began extensive extensions to the palace on
the Palatine. On the 10th of June 38 AD, Drusilla, Caligula’s
favourite sister died unexpectedly. His grief was immense and when she was granted
a public funeral he was unable to attend due to the depth of his grief, her eulogy instead
being delivered by her husband Lepidus. Caligula left Rome, first making for his villa
at Alba, before travelling to Campania and then to Sicily, all the while letting his
hair and beard go uncut as a sign of his grief. A period of mourning for her was decreed and
observed in Rome and other parts of the empire such as Egypt, those that didn’t observe
the mourning period may have risked conviction. As well as receiving the same honours as Livia
after death, whose own mourning period was not subject to suspension of business, she
was deified by the senate, and a statue erected to her in the Temple of Venus, she was also
to receive her own temple and college of priests. She was to be part of the oaths sworn by any
woman and was to be known throughout the cities of the Empire as Panthea or “All-Goddess”. Caligula even bowed to the flattery of one
who announced he had seen Drusilla ascend to the heavens and should be struck down if
he was lying, to which Caligula rewarded him with a handsome sum. Elaborate, two day games, were to be held
for her each year on her birthday following her death. These honours, although many, were not extraordinary
in themselves, only that they went to a woman who was of so little political consequence. In the months following Drusilla’s death
and his return to Rome, Caligula married for the third time although the exact date is
unknown. His wife, Lollia Paulina, was a woman of immense
wealth through inheritance, who at one of the more modest banquets, supposedly wore
jewels worth 40 million sesterces. When Caligula first sought her as a bride
she was already married to the governor of Moesia, Macedonia, and Achaea, Publius Memmius
Regulus. A man of more modest means, he agreed to divorce
his wife and supposedly gave her in marriage to Caligula himself. Towards the end of 38 AD, Caligula granted
further territories, this time to the Thracian princes, Rhoemetalces, Polemon II, and Cotys,
whom he had known since his time in Antonia’s household. They were granted Thrace, Pontus, and Lesser
Armenia respectively, which had been under Roman governance since the death of their
father Cotys, King of Thrace, in 19 AD. It was around the same time that the governor
of Egypt, Aulus Avillius Flaccus, was recalled and arrested, although the exact charges are
unknown. Throughout the year there had been unrest
in Alexandria between the Greeks and Jews but tensions diffused somewhat with the removal
of the governor. Flaccus was condemned to exile and had his
property confiscated, Lepidus however, intervened and ensured a more comfortable exile than
had been intended. Caligula began his second consulship on the
1st of January 39 AD, colleagued by Lucius Apronius Caesianus, and while Apronius completed
the six month term, Caligula resigned the position after only thirty days, whereby he
was replaced by Sanquinius Maximus. But it was in 39 AD that things started to
change. Although the sources are vague for the months
following Caligula’s resignation from the consulship, a conspiracy involving former
consuls against the emperor was discovered. The cases went through the court and the conspirators
condemned under maiestas, although we are not provided with their names. A number of others were then tried for corruption
for the misuse of funds relating to road repairs stretching back into Tiberius’ reign. Five other trials of senators are recorded
for the time, including that of Seneca, of which three resulted in death or suicide,
only Seneca and the orator Domitius Afer escaped condemnation. However, the wholesale slaughter of the senators
by Caligula at this time has been dismissed for lack of evidence in modern re-interpretations
of the available sources. Caligula wasn’t finished with the matter
though, and addressed the senate, where he denounced their treatment of Tiberius and
placed the blame on them, rather than the former emperor, for the many deaths that had
accompanied the maiestas trials in the last years of his reign. Information on the individuals that had fallen
victim to the trials were recounted, and here Caligula revealed his hand, as much of what
was spoken came from the documents that were supposed to have been burnt. But he went on, rebuking the senate for their
hypocrisy in the way in which they spoke to him, presenting him with honours and then
conspiring behind his back. At the end of his speech, he reinstated the
maiestas trials and left the senate, having made his position as ruler clear. The following day, the senate responded in
the only way they could, praising him as a pious, sincere ruler, voting that annual sacrifices
should be offered in lieu of his clemency on the anniversary of his speech and granting
him an ovation, practicing the same flattery Caligula had criticised them for, and so it
would continue for a time. Caligula now began to exploit the tradition
of “friendship” that existed between members of the aristocracy. The senate were under no illusion, his speech
had made it clear what the emperor thought of them, but Caligula held the power and,
for the moment at least, they had no choice but to comply. A resolution was passed through the senate
whereby all those that had named Tiberius in their will must now change it to name Caligula
instead. But this wasn’t all. Caligula gave large sums as gifts to force
the recipients to make an even larger gifts to him, which in some cases forced people
into debt. Furthermore, when Caligula put his own gladiators
up for auction, his presence at the event caused their prices to rise as those present
felt obligated to bid. He is even said to have caused Aponius Saturninus
to bid nine million sesterces for thirteen gladiators, when Caligula drew the auctioneer’s
attention to the man nodding in his sleep, which was taken to mean he was bidding. One of the most notorious acts which Caligula
is known for, is wanting to make his horse a consul and both ancient and modern historians
have used this example to highlight his supposed insanity. But there is another explanation. Following the discovery of the conspiracy,
Caligula had not been shy in expressing his feelings towards the members of the senate,
and thus far had employed fiscal humiliation tactics. He is said to have invited his favourite racehorse,
Incitatus, to banquets, where he would eat food made of gold and was served with golden
dinner services. But Caligula was also supposed to have had
a fine marble stall constructed for him, a manger of ivory to hold his food, and purple
blankets before being given a palace, staff, and a dinner service so that he could entertain
guests in the proper way. By presenting Incitatus with the accoutrements
of aristocracy and stating his intentions to make him a consul, Caligula was making
a joke at their expense but also showing that power laid with him and, ultimately, he would
appoint who he liked to be consul. At the same time, although the date is uncertain,
Caligula ended his third marriage, divorcing his wife Lollia. At the time he stated the reason that she
was barren, however, keeping with their negative narrative the sources state that this was
just an excuse, and he was in fact tired of her. However, later accounts from Claudius’ reign
give credence to Lollia’s infertility. A short time later, during the summer of 39
AD, a child named Julia Drusilla was born to Milonia Caesonia, a woman of proven fertility
who already had three daughters. Caligula married Milonia following the birth,
possibly on the same day, although once again the timeline is uncertain. Milonia was already pregnant by the time Caligula
divorced Lollia, and while there isn’t any question that Caligula was the father, he
reportedly carried the child to the Capitoline temple and placed her on the statue of Jupiter,
confirming her paternity, and then on that of Minerva, giving her education over to the
goddess. But Caligula also used the opportunity of
Julia’s birth, when he discussed the expenses of being a father, which forced members of
the aristocracy to offer monetary gifts or risk a public demonstration of their lack
of “friendship” to the emperor. Throughout the first half of the year, planning
was underway for a campaign in Germany, including the raising of two new legions, but at the
same time another plot against Caligula was being developed. Among the conspirators were Lepidus, and both
of the emperor’s sisters, having been all but excluded from the succession with the
birth of Caligula’s child. The commander of upper Germany, Gaetulicus,
who had held his position since 29 AD, as well as the suffect consuls, were also involved,
and it is said that the plot was known of by many within the senate. The plot was betrayed, although it is unknown
by whom, but not all of the conspirators were immediately unmasked. Caligula moved first against the consuls,
removing them from office and having their fasces, or rods of office, broken. This led to one of the unnamed consuls committing
suicide, and Domitius Afer and Aulus Didius Gallus being appointed by Caligula to replace
the disgraced consuls. It is likely around this time that Caligula
also took the decision to divide the province of Africa in two and remove the last legion
stationed there from the control of the senate, command passing from the senatorial position
of proconsul to the control of an imperial legate, thus restricting senatorial military
commands. He then travelled to Umbria but stayed only
a short while, and going against the planning for the campaign, started, without warning,
the journey to Germany at an unrelenting pace, his sisters and Lepidus among the retinue. Although the sources are somewhat unreliable,
recent attempts have been made to produce a coherent account of the events surrounding
the conspiracy and campaign. It has been suggested that Caligula, suspecting
Gaetulicus, left Umbria without warning in order to surprise the commander, thereby giving
him no time to prepare to stand against him. Gaetulicus was executed and replaced by general
Galba, at the same time his sister’s and Lepidus’ complicity came to light. Lepidus was executed and both sisters exiled,
while he paid the soldiers for their loyalty and supposedly sent the swords that were to
have been used against him back to Rome to be offered in the Temple of Mars Ultor. He informed the senate by letter of the plot
and forbade the granting of any future honours to his relatives. A number of trials also took place for members
of the senate who had links to the conspirators involved in the plot, and others, such as
the future emperor Vespasian, were forced to denounce the actions of those involved. As with the first conspiracy earlier that
year, the senate granted an ovation for Caligula but this backfired on them when they chose
Claudius to lead the delegation that set out to deliver the news, as their choice went
directly against Caligula’s prohibition of honours for his family. Most of the delegation was dismissed back
to Rome before reaching the emperor, and only a few, including Claudius were allowed to
attend him, although not without hostility on Caligula’s part. Following this mistake by the senate Caligula
then forbade them to grant any future honours to him. Under Gaetulicus the army had become lax and
had failed to halt German incursions into Gaul, now it fell to Caligula to correct things. He reduced the amount paid on completion of
service and discharged many centurions due to their age and poor physical condition. Dishonourable discharges went to a number
of commanders, who when re-deployed to Germany, were thought to have delayed matters, waiting
on the outcome of the conspiracy. Galba was rewarded for his loyalty with a
commendation and the task of restoring the army of the upper Rhine to an effective force. Similarly, the commander of the lower Rhine
army, Apronius, was replaced by Publius Gabinius Secundus, due to his familial connections
with Gaetulicus and a record of defeats. Given the lateness of the season, little in
the way of an actual military campaign took place at the end of 39 AD, however, those
small engagements that did take place, resulted in victory for the Roman army. Galba was successful in pushing back the enemy
and Vespasian put a proposal to the senate to hold games celebrating Caligula’s victory
in Germany. Caligula wintered in Lyon, where it appears
he took account of the tax rolls. Dio suggests that to pay for the campaign
he ordered that the richer inhabitants of Gaul be executed and their wealth confiscated,
however, this scenario is likely another attempt of an ancient historian to distort the interpretation
of the situation to suit his own bias against Caligula, as it is known that at this time
Caligula auctioned off the entirety of his sisters’ households. He then went further, ordering that many of
the valuable possessions accumulated under Augustus and Tiberius throughout the imperial
household, should also be auctioned in Gaul, serving to raise Caligula’s profile by allowing
those in Gaul to acquire objects connected with the prestige of Rome. The town of Lyon gained from the emperor’s
visit as it benefitted from games and theatrical performances put on at Caligula’s expense. While Lyon enjoyed the festivities provided
by the emperor, the inhabitants of the nearby town of Vienna (modern day Vienne, France),
were granted Roman citizenship. At the beginning of 40 AD Caligula took up
his third consulship but given his absence from Rome, the senate fearing recriminations
of acting on his behalf, delayed all business until they heard from him. On the 12th of January they received word
from the emperor that he was resigning the consulship. Business commenced with sacrifices to Caligula
in the temple on the Capitol and prostrations before the empty throne, then in the Curia,
the senators offered praise and prayers for the young emperor. Shortly after the new consuls had taken up
their positions, another letter arrived from Caligula, which led to the dedication and
erection of statues for both the emperor and Drusilla. The events early in 40 AD are still subject
to much debate, as no definitive answers can be gleaned from the sources. Rather than setting out to conquer further
Germanic territory, the campaign on the Rhine continued in a defensive capacity following
Caligula’s reorganisation within the ranks, under the leadership of Galba. Caligula then set out, supposedly with his
sights set on an invasion of Britain. However, we cannot state with certainty that
he intended to invade Britain at this time, given that the Rhine frontier, although in
a better position than it had been under Gaetulicus, was not yet secure. It has been suggested, on the one hand, that
Caligula set out on a military procession from the Rhine towards the Channel, where
on arrival he officially received the exiled Adminius from Britain and accepted his surrender. The order to collect seashells was given as
part of the victory celebrations and they were taken back to Rome and displayed as part
of his triumph, and a donative paid to the soldiers. On the other hand, there is a suggestion that
the legions mutinied on the shore, refusing to make the crossing to Britain and they were
then ordered to collect shells as a humiliating punishment. Given the lack of details and biased nature
of the sources, these suggestions are the more plausible among the many proffered but
neither can be proved with certainty. Caligula then turned back for Rome and was
met part way by a delegation from the senate who urged him to hurry back to the capital. Perhaps in no small part caused by the foiled
conspiracy, his feelings towards the senate had not improved and he is purported to have
uttered words to the effect that he was coming back and so was this, tapping the hilt of
his sword, going further still he forbade the senate from coming out to meet him on
his return to the city. Around this point there was also a change
in those he surrounded himself with, now only in public would he still be accompanied by
members of the senate and aristocracy as a whole. His wife and both Praetorian prefects were
among his confidantes, but he now chose freedmen such as Callistus and Protogenes and the slave
Helicon over senators as part of his inner circle, further severing relations with them. On the way to Rome, it is likely that Caligula
met with the client king Ptolemy of Mauretania, having been summoned by the emperor while
he was absent. Ptolemy was arrested and imprisoned in Rome
for a time before being executed. A number of reasons have been put forward
for the execution: One is that Caligula took offence at the purple robes he wore; another
is that Caligula wanted Ptolemy’s wealth; or perhaps Ptolemy had in some way been involved
in the plot against the emperor through a familial association with Gaetulicus, however,
as with so much of Caligula’s reign no one reason can be stated with any certainty, if
any are true at all. While it seems that Ptolemy had not been hugely
favoured amongst his people, his execution did spark a revolt by his loyal elements which
was not fully put down until 42 AD under Claudius. Caligula didn’t enter the city immediately
on his return. It may have been at this time, in the gardens
of Agrippina where he met with the Jewish delegation, led by Philo, from Alexandria
for the first time, following the riots between them and the Alexandrian Greeks, although
the timeline cannot be irrefutably confirmed. Partly out of concerns for his own safety
amid a crowd and because he had forbidden honours from the senate, precluding a triumph,
he turned from Rome and made his way south to his villa near Puteoli, modern day Pozzuoli,
where he planned to stage his triumphant return by crossing the sea. Cargo ships were gathered from far and wide
and set up in a double row across the three mile span of the Gulf of Baiae from Puteoli
to Bauli and were piled with earth to form a solid crossing. Caligula, supposedly wearing the breastplate
of Alexander the Great made sacrifices to the gods and crossed the bridge from Bauli
accompanied by his troops. The following day he made the return crossing,
this time bringing a train of plundered items with him presumably from the north, as well
as his “friends” of the aristocracy, troops and praetorians, and supposedly they dined
on a stage at the centre of the bridge. The celebration ended with many being thrown
into the water while the bridge itself was “attacked” by ship borne rams with much
of it being sunk. Some of those that went into the water drowned
but others managed to pull themselves to safety. There is uncertainty surrounding the exact
date of the event, many historians place it in accordance with Dio’s account of 39 AD
before Caligula journeyed to the Rhine frontier, but others, based on the accounts of Josephus
and Seneca, place it a year later following Caligula’s return from the north. Caligula finally returned to Rome on the 31st
of August 40 AD, his twenty-eighth birthday, and received an ovation. A number of trials were instigated, some of
which fell under maiestas. Julius Canus, a stoic philosopher, was sentenced
to death, likely by the senate, for a possible connection to a conspiracy. Although for some, such as the orator Julius
Graecinus, reasons for trial and subsequent execution cannot be determined, and few actual
cases are named despite the assertion of the sources that Caligula was planning to eliminate
much of the senate, and the senators themselves once again began denouncing one another. But not all of the trials resulted in executions. When the senator Pomponius was accused by
another, possibly of maiestas, his accuser called the freedwoman Quintilia as a witness. Despite being tortured by the praetorian tribune
Cassius Chaerea, she refused to reveal any information, damning or exonerating alike. When brought before Caligula following her
ordeal, he was touched by the lasting disfigurement inflicted upon her and released both Quintilia
and Pomponius, rewarding the freedwoman with eight hundred thousand sesterces. As denunciations continued in a bid to prove
loyalty to the emperor, a third conspiracy came into being involving members of the aristocracy. The son of a former consul, Sextus Papinius,
Betilienus Bassus an imperial quaestor, and a third unnamed senator were seized and executed
after their plot was betrayed by the senator Anicius Cerialis, who would meet his own end
under the emperor Nero. Caligula then exploited the feeling in the
senate following the discovery of the latest plot and in the next session, granted impunity
to the remaining members, as there were few now that he was still ill disposed towards. But, as likely intended, his words caused
further fear among the senators, for Caligula hadn’t named those who still attracted his
ire. This led to bloodshed in a later session. Caligula didn’t attend the session but Protogenes,
the man tasked with keeping records on the senators, did. When the senator Scribonius Proculus greeted
him, Protogenes is reported to have replied with sharp words about the man’s hatred
for the emperor, which provoked a response from the other senators. They set upon Proculus and he was reportedly
torn apart and his remains presented to Caligula for which he was reported to have “shown
pleasure”. Following the death of Proculus, Caligula
declared his reconciliation with the senators who in turn voted festivals in his favour
and issued a decree that he should sit on a high platform, kept away from those who
would approach him and would be allowed a military guard within the senate. Now Caligula turned to a tactic of Sejanus
however, and permitted slaves to bring charges against their masters, so not only did the
leading men of Rome have to guard their tongue in public, lest they be denounced, but now
even their homes weren’t safe from scrutiny. As a consequence, Claudius soon found himself
denounced by one of his slaves and faced a trial. Although it is reported by Josephus that Caligula
hoped for his uncle’s execution, a statement which cannot be proven either way, the trial
was dismissed, without influence from the emperor. One of the more notorious stories of Caligula
is his opening of a brothel on the Palatine, although we are not presented with a date
for this apparent act. However, it has now been suggested that this
was yet another way in which Caligula checked the behaviour of the senators, and far from
being a brothel was actually an extension of familiares, the custom whereby favoured
members of the aristocracy lived within the palace. In this instance, those women and children
who were supposed to have been the prostitutes have been suggested to be the wives and children
of those highest ranking consulars, who were in a way hostage to the emperor. Their husbands and fathers thus compelled
to repay the emperor with gifts for the honour bestowed on the family and avowing to the
supposed friendship between them. Other, more overt attacks on the senate now
commenced, from which no one was immune. Caligula abolished the reserved seating for
senate and equestrians alike at theatrical performances, leading to competition for seats,
which could become violent and forced them to mix with plebs in the audience, demeaning
their status. Claudius again was met with hostility when
his vote in the senate was demoted within the ranks so that he would be the last to
vote in all matters, not dissimilar to the treatment of Silanus years earlier. But going further, Caligula targeted those
old Republican families and decreed that their statues should be taken down from the Campus
Martius, and only he could decide whose statues and portraits were displayed. Those descendants of famous Republicans were
also now denied the honours attached to their family, including that of a great grandson
of Pompey who was forbidden from using the title of “the Great” within his name. The humiliation continued further still, Caligula
took to offering his hand or foot to be kissed by members of the senate and failed to return
the gesture, disdaining the symbolism of equality between them. Many times, he would make the gesture to those
of lower standing, snubbing the well-respected and higher members completely, and yet those
that did receive public favour in this way still continued to offer their thanks openly. Sometime in mid to late 40 AD, following further
unrest in the east, this time in Judaea, Caligula announced that the imperial cult and a statue
of himself should be set up in the temple of Jerusalem, a move which has often been
cited as evidence for his thinking that he was a god. This act in fact, was more likely in response
to the destruction of an imperial alter at Jamnia by the Jews during the unrest. There is no evidence that Caligula actually
considered himself a god. Since Augustus’ time the senate had often
referred to the emperors as divine as part of their praising of deeds and both Augustus
and Tiberius frequently refused such honours heaped upon them. The same is true of the earlier part of Caligula’s
reign. It is only following the conspiracies when
his attitude towards the senate changed that Caligula permitted this type of veneration
to himself and it has been suggested that it was yet another tactic he employed to humiliate
the senators in demonstrating their submissiveness, rather than an official cult of worship. The imperial cult in the provinces was an
important reflection of provincial loyalty to Rome rather than a cult dedicated to the
worship of the current emperor. Although divine ruler cults existed elsewhere,
and had been prominent in the Hellenic regions, again there is no suggestion that Caligula
styled himself in this way. And while he was known to have dressed as
a number of gods and goddesses occasionally in public, this should not be seen as his
wish to be worshipped but instead as his attempt to publicly expose the hypocrisy of the senate
by their veneration of him while styled as a god. By January of 41 AD Caligula had finalised
plans for an extended visit to Alexandria, there is also a suggestion that he may have
been planning to eventually move the capital to the city. Since the discovery of the third conspiracy,
Caligula’s distrust among those in his inner circle had grown, indeed, Bassus’ father
Capito, had denounced those aristocrats whom he still had associations with and his own
aides as part of the conspiracy, before he was executed. The denunciations were dismissed but the seeds
of suspicion had been sown in Caligula and despite the protestations of his freedman
Callistus and the praetorian prefects that they were loyal, Caligula was not convinced,
and this placed them in danger. Callistus and the prefects couldn’t be the
ones to assassinate Caligula themselves, but as fear of possible future reprisals spread
through the upper echelons of the praetorians, Cassius Chaerea, a praetorian tribune, who
had more contact with the emperor than most, having been given the distasteful tasks of
tax collection and torture and frequently made the butt of the emperor’s jokes, is
suggested to have proposed Caligula’s assassination, the plot then fell into place. Chaerea seemed eager to see it done and brought
another tribune, Cornelius Sabinus, on side, however he was repeatedly put off from acting
by the prefect Clemens. But finally, the date was set for the 24th
of January, Caligula’s departure for Alexandria was scheduled for the 25th. Caligula spent the morning in the theatre,
opening the performance with a sacrifice to Augustus before returning to the palace later
in the day. Separated from his entourage that had accompanied
him from the theatre Caligula was now flanked by the two tribunes. There are several differing accounts of the
murder but most agree that it was Chaerea who struck the first blow before the emperor
was set upon by Sabinus and a number of centurions. Caligula’s death was immediately followed
by that of his wife and child, at the hands of a tribune by the name of Lupus. In the immediate aftermath of his death a
number of conspirators were killed by members of the Imperial Germanic bodyguard within
the palace, while a search was instigated for others. The spectators in the theatre were horrified
at the news of the attack on the emperor and rumours were rife, some stating that the emperor
wasn’t dead at all. Only a short while later was it confirmed
by Arruntius Euaristus that Caligula was indeed dead, which quelled the Germanic bodyguard
who’d surrounded the theatre, allowing the spectators to leave. Arguments ensued over the future of the empire
amongst the senate, some going as far as to seek the restoration of the Republic but the
following day the decision was taken out of their hands when the Praetorian prefects declared
Claudius as Emperor and soon the senate followed suit, confirming him in his position. With the exception of Sabinus, who committed
suicide, all the remaining assassins were then executed. Caligula has been seen for many years as a
mad and lustful emperor but increasingly modern historians have re-evaluated the available
primary sources and now suggest that many of the accounts were hostile towards him,
painting a picture of an insane, tyrannical monster unfit to rule in their eyes, muddling
his deeds and projecting bad qualities of later emperors on to him to suit their purpose
rather than giving a true recounting of his short rule, thereby biasing our own narratives
of him. A prime example of this can be seen during
Caligula’s time in Germany. Suetonius’ accounts of the later emperors,
Galba, and Vespasian, point to small victories in Germany during the closing stages of 39
AD, but his writings on Caligula, which completely fail to mention the foiled conspiracy, distort
his actions in the region, painting a farcical picture of his time there, rather than that
of an emperor attempting to right a situation that had developed over the last decade. Similarly, it has been well stated that having
been left a healthy treasury by Tiberius, Caligula bankrupted the empire. However, in depth modern examinations of fiscal
activities during his reign, suggest that he in fact promoted sound economic policy
and left the treasury in good condition despite his lavish spending. As well as this, for many years the narrative
of Caligula’s incest with his three sisters has been propogated and is still thought of
as true by a minority of historians today. But it is only in some of the later accounts
such as Suetonius, rather than those of his contemporaries that this accusation is made. Similarly, in an account of his sister Agrippina
by Tacitus, while he posits that she may have attempted incest with Nero, nothing is mentioned
of Caligula, and so it is clear that these accusations should be seen as slander, rather
than truth. Caligula’s reign began on a good note. He was welcomed as the young emperor to succeed
the reviled Tiberius, popular with the people and senate alike, and seemed to usher in a
new era of cooperation and friendship. Caligula, in some way, sought to emulate Augustus
in the beginning, painting himself as an equal to the senate and promising to work with them. His early policies benefitted the populace,
and he instigated a program of public building that would benefit Rome in years to come,
that had not been seen under his predecessor. He also did much to assuage the fears of the
aristocracy, banning the maiestas trials that had become prevalent for much of the last
decade and pardoning those still living that had fallen victim to them. Even following the deaths of Gemellus, Silanus
and Macro he was seen as justified in his actions and remained popular with much of
the populace and army until his death. Perhaps in part because of his own interests,
he repealed a number of Tiberius’ acts against entertainment and literature which were well
received by all, including the senators for a time. But change came following the discovery of
the first conspiracy and Caligula’s attitude towards the senate and aristocracy as a whole
soured, becoming more hostile as time progressed, and more inclined to rule without their input. His attacks were subtle at first before becoming
more overt, resulting in public humiliations of many within the aristocracy and through
their resentment the conspiracies continued to unfold, only further worsening the relationship
between them. Caligula supposedly viewed the discomfort
of those he targeted with a perverse humour, feeling that they had brought everything on
themselves and was unconcerned that his activities caused financial or physical harm. He took his actions to the extreme, in exposing
the hypocritical and submissive nature of the senate and at the same time chipping away
at their power, which is made worse by the fact that they were the actions, not of a
madmen as many would have us believe, but of a sane and calculating individual who ultimately
sought to rule without the body that had held power in Rome for centuries. What do you think of Emperor Caligula? Has he been rightly characterised by ancient
and modern historians alike, as an incompetent ruler and an insane tyrant, who lusted for
the blood of those beneath him or is his reputation undeserved? Please let us know in the comment section,
and in the meantime, thank you very much for watching.
