Firepower, Artillery and Big Guns (documentary)

Fort Sill Oklahoma soldiers are learning to shoot sophisticated pieces of military technology today's big guns these are weapons that generate and harness powerful explosive forces this is the M triple 7 howitzer an important part of the US Army's arsenal when it fires the temperatures inside the guns soar to over 4,500 degrees Fahrenheit it's barrel direct 7,000 times more energy than an ak-47 and it's shells travel more than three times faster than a Boeing 747 these extremes push the limits of artillery design building on a long evolution of propulsion technology before artillery there was the bow and arrow but the bow was only as powerful as the archer who drew it there's a limit to how much the human body can pull a bowstring and also the length of the human arm makes the range and strength of discharge essentially very limited artillery aim to overcome that limitation with mechanical devices at the beginning the goal was to increase range 421 BC in southern Italy an ancient Greek force deployed a new kind of weapon against an Italian tribe it may have been the very first artillery piece used in warfare it was called the gastro Feeney's in essence the gastro feeties was a mechanical bow that used tension as the power source mechanizing a handheld weapon was a way to create more propulsive force than the human arm could generate normal bow allows you an effective range of about 150 to 200 meters the gastro faeces probably increased that to about 250 meters that extra range was vital especially against enemies that were still using traditional bows but to shoot something heavier than an arrow more power was required crossbow designer Ivan Williams has researched how ancient engineers tackled this challenge he believes many of the early solutions may have come from nature you can see it on big trees when the wind blows and they twist in the twist back again all those fibers as they twist together want to come back again so it's a big spring you can see at this tree here had been split and the fibers have a splitted I followed it round in a curved clockwise curve so as I move this arm round all the fire was in that tree top and bottom or twisted ties together and that creates a lot of energy that's quite difficult to pull round the action of twisting the trees stores up energy this springy sapling points the way to a weapon system that would supersede the gas trophy teas one that would replace tension with torsion like the twisting tree wound rope made from fibers animal sinew or even human hair can also generate torsion power and rope can easily be incorporated into artillery what you have to do is to crank it round turn it round spin it round somehow rotate it so that you're harnessing that inherent natural force control it and then release it at precisely the right mode the ancient Greeks built and tested various torsion artillery pieces in the 3rd and 4th centuries BC British experimental archeologists have painstakingly reconstructed one of these machines it's called the ballista and it's throwing power far surpasses the range of the gas trophy T's we want to throw heavy rocks you know 30 pounds and more 60 pounds so to do that a different power source is required what twists it and stores the power is a steel arrangement up here with a pin that goes through the rope and then is locked into place with this pin here torsion power meant that for the first time heavy stone missiles could be shot over long distances the Greeks invented torsion artillery but it continued to evolve into Roman times one of the most striking examples of its use in ancient warfare occurred in the Middle East 73 ad the mountaintop fortress of Masada in Israel's Judean Desert Rome's 10th Legion laid siege to a group of Jewish rebels barricaded in this lofty stronghold which had previously been fortified by Herod the Great more than 1300 feet above the desert floor Masada appears incredible but the Romans were able to build a ramp up to the walls and batter their way in he to the success of their assault was their use of torsion artillery this is a police the bull that was found here during the excavations and they were found scattered all over the area and in large concentrations near the breach in the fortress wall at the top of the ramp the Roman commander Flavius Silva seems to have been using the artillery for a specific purpose suppressing fire these weapons are not capable of battering down huge 12 or 13-foot thick walls they are purely designed to keep people off the top of the walls so the data interfere with your siege preparations everything was directed to one thing to bring the battering ram on top of the ramp to those 20 meters 25 metre wild area where they wanted to breach the wall archaeological evidence suggests that is the huge siege Tower and battering ram inched slowly up the ramp Roman artillery put up a wall of suppressing fire both from ballistas mounted on the tower itself and from positions at the bottom of the ramp the tactic worked and Masada fell artillery fire proved its value in siege warfare but the Romans found other uses for artillery as well they were able to adapt the use of long-range projectiles to different kinds of fighting as they expanded and defended their empire technology reacts to a pre-existing need the Romans are going to be outnumbered everywhere they fight if they're on the frontiers in Asia or northwest Europe the problem that they're going to face is they're going to have tribal armies that have far more combatants you can harness technology to equally odds so that one bolt can go through and kill six seven eight nine people and make people so scared that they'll flee Jewish historian Josephus witnessed the deadly force of Roman artillery firsthand when a pregnant woman was struck in the belly on leaving her house the unborn child was flung a hundred yards so tremendous was the power of that stone throat artillery in the ancient world had a shock and all value the very visceral effects of the impact of projectile fire had great demoralizing effect on defenders the effect was due in part to the impersonality of the attacks while the dyeing occurred up close the long-range strikes put the enemy out of harm's way victory no longer depended entirely on hand-to-hand combat battlefields and battle tactics were changing at this gun Factory in Mississippi engineers are building em triple7 howitzers when finished the guns will be able to fire shells more than 15 miles that's 80 times further than the torsion powered ballista but there have been many steps in between and each new advance brought more technology to bear on the effective distance a weapon could achieve just as tension power gave way to torsion so would torsion eventually be surpassed it happened in the 12th century when a new kind of artillery appeared on the battlefield the counterweight trebuchet it was the most powerful weapon produced in medieval times and its arrival assured the ballista into obsolescence this is falster island in denmark home of the medieval center here craftsmen recreate many of the military technologies of the past using era appropriate tools engineering trebuchet x' is one of their specialties believed to have originated in China around 400 BC the early trebuchet was likely a simple device like this soldiers pulled on ropes to propel a missile from a sling though its route is unclear the trebuchet eventually made its way west now when did it come to Europe that's a real question we really just don't know but in the Crusades we see the true origins of the trebuchet the we know today the trebuchet is used in the Crusades were advanced machines that relied on mechanical counter weights to launch projectiles it is this impressive 12th century version that experimental archaeologist Peter Venning decided to build his trebuchet is 72 feet high and works by releasing a counterweight that weighs as much as four SUVs when we built a machine like this one we lack thousand years of experience that's why you call it experimental archaeology you have to try and try and try yeah oh my god we're gonna go they also need some heavy lifting to launch it as the human guinea pigs walk inside the wheel they winch a rope and pulley system that slowly raises the heavy counterweight meanwhile a floating target is pushed into place 400 yards away you are catch this a sling on the end of the firing arm shoots a 33 pound stone ball short a few feet about 20 feet to the right the shots come very near the distant target and lack of a direct hit isn't the drawback it appears to be in the Middle Ages the trebuchet would have an aiming at or over wide castle walls they would also fire iron and Flint filled projectiles that shattered into lethal fragments upon impact accounts from the time suggest that sometimes the machines were used as much for effect as for damage we get these stories of them launching things over the walls those we are that they could ignite the heads of their enemies that they've captured to scare the people inside we even have sources tell us that they sent back captured spies enemies and you knew they were landed with the cry stopped in some cases just the threat of a trebuchet attack could be decisive the best siege is the one that's not fought if you have this pick huge device that launches things over the walls and into the walls and the sound is incredible and fires start and people are going to say we've had it we're surrendering now it's done but of course not everyone surrendered and fortification engineers found ways to fight back one was by building castles with multiple levels towers and concentric defensive walls of immense width in the bitter Crusader battles of the thirteenth century these castles resisted trebuchet attacks so generals needed a new tool in the ongoing struggle between offense and defense they found it in the form of gunpowder one of the most important inventions in the evolution of warfare France 13:24 the city of Metz was under attack from feudal lords though the Battle of self was minor it is remembered as the first reported use of gunpowder artillery from then on we realized that nothing's going to be the same gunpowder weapons of large caliber or small caliber big huge guns smaller guns we'll all have a great impact and it's not long before Trevor Shay's are gone it's not long before archery is gone crossbows everything will change not just from the introduction of gunpowder as it made its way slowly from China but from its marriage with a barrel which allowed engineers to direct the force of the explosion the challenge came from the strength of the blast if the barrel wasn't strong enough it would be torn apart when the gunpowder went off when you're developing something new you try all sorts of things you would have tried anything to hand and of course at an early stage you might try bamboo this 10th century Chinese illustration shows Buddha being attacked by a demon wielding what looks like a gun barrel made from bamboo armor Scott McIntyre has designed his own version of the demons fire Lance here I have a typical projectile which is actually a papier-mache ball and behind that there's a gunpowder charge that is actually inside a tube when this charge is ignited it will build up an awful lot of pressure McIntyre's tube is a hollowed-out piece of bamboo that's pretty much there now it's just a few more small pieces but sir yeah that looks pretty good the barrel must be securely strapped down before it's fired projectile will be loaded in down to here there's a bug in here which will then contain all the gas as it expands the projector will travel down the barrel exiting the muzzle here and hopefully reach out I'll get over there the bamboo gun fires as planned but even with the target less than 160 feet away it's not very accurate it takes five shots to hit the bull's eye it's a start but not yet the effective weapon explosive artillery will become today's artillery barrels must withstand incredible stresses before any new artillery pieces declare it ready for battle its barrel is put through a series of mandatory tests the tests take place here in the Arizona desert at the Yuma Proving Ground all stations stand by for a five-second countdown to ground number 45 in five four three two one each M triple7 has to perform at the maximum pressure the gun barrel is designed to withstand the ammunition is loaded at the rear or breech of the weapon projectiles used in the test are the heaviest and most explosive the gun can handle and generate the hottest temperatures the barrel can withstand these forces because it's made from a single solid piece of hardened steel but that effective single piece construction evolved from many earlier and not always successful gun barrel designs July 19th 15:45 the mary-rose flagship of Henry the 8th sank off the coast of England this cannon is from the wreck what's really wonderful about this piece is because it sat on the seabed for so long what's happened as parts of the the surface are completely corroding away revealing the structure inside it's made of long strips of iron which we call staves which you can see along the top here and they run the whole length of the barrel and round it they put rings and hoops of iron the corrosion reveals a construction similar to that of a wooden barrel the kind that would hold dry goods or beer in both cases the hoops apply pressure from the outside to keep the staves together the gun barrel simply replaced the wooden staves with iron but whether using iron or wood there is an inherent flaw in the design when this experimental hoop and stave gun is fired explosive gas leaks out between the staves this saps the power of the explosion and can be disastrous for the gunner every shot had the potential to explode the barrel and kill all of those standing around the weapon what you're really looking for is a material a piece of artillery which is a very good solid continuous piece of metal the skills to make such a barrel came from traditional craftsmen who created far less violent items belts at this foundry in Loughborough England founders cast bells in the medieval way by pouring molten bronze into a mold in 14th century Europe this casting method was adapted for gun barrels all we've really got to do is make a different form of mold you already have the furnace the technology and the knowledge of bronze to do it by the mid 15th century huge barrels could be made from single pieces of bronze gunpowder artillery has diversified both in size and power and purpose in metallurgy people are starting to understand generals and leaders are starting to understand how valuable guns are 1453 Constantinople in what is today Turkey the Byzantine capital city was under siege from Ottoman Turks who were expanding their empire by the beginning of the 15th century the Ottoman Turks were actually behind in gunpowder weaponry but by the middle of the 15th century they're above everybody it's as if they got this incentive to build guns and pill time of enormous size big guns that the ottoman sultan mehmed ii unleashed against the walls of what was then the greatest city in the world guns like this this great turkish bombard was cast in 1464 for meThe met ii the Conqueror of Constantinople this is the breech chamber which contained the Gunpowder loaded in here and held securely by a wooden plug that would be hammered in would help to build up the pressure then the two halves are brought together and with huge effort using wooden spikes in these recesses the barrel is screwed onto the breech the breech section alone weighs a stunning 8 tons so the barrel has already been screwed together it needs to be loaded with one of these massive stone granite cannonballs weighing over 600 pounds bombarded for nearly two months by these heavy projectiles entire sections of Constantinople x' walls collapsed the city fell and military leaders around the world took note the fall of Constantinople was a major watershed not only in political and economic history but in the history of military technology in that it showed that even the most powerful thickest walls could be brought low by gunpowder technology artillery once again held the upper hand over fortifications but there was still a dangerous flaw in the design of the gun barrels casting technology had made them stronger than hoop and stave and eliminated the leaking gas but they had a frightening tendency to explode when fired before around 1470 cannons casting bronze were cast with the breech of the gun in the back of the garden they've cast vertically in the breech was at the top and the muzzles at the bottom the problem was when you poured it with the breech up the purities tended to gather at the top so of course the impurities the big gaps were in that part of the gun where the explosion happened so you always had inherently weak guns what someone realized you could do is you could turn your cannon over and you now cast it with the muzzle up and the breech at the bottom so the best metal the best casting now is at the bottom at the back of the cannon where the Gunpowder was such a simple change made a world of difference and it came at just the right time for gunpowder was also being improved by mixing the ingredients wet instead of dry powder makers in France were able to change gunpowder's consistency and create a more stable and powerful the new method was called corny when you have grained powder like this the first grain to ignite generates a flame which shoots between the days and grains what this means is you can get powder that burns seriously fast the trail on the right is filled with gunpowder as it was made in the early 1300s the one on the Left contains the newer corned powder when the two trails are lit simultaneously the difference is clear five four three two one the corn gunpowder burns down in just three seconds the earlier formulation takes a full 41 seconds to burn itself out when you got to corn powder you had really good high explosive which you could then develop a better cannon four and get longer ranges and better smashing power the Gunpowder was more explosive the barrels were stronger and the projectiles too started to improve as stone cannonballs were gradually replaced by iron when they did develop the idea of cast iron it obviously was diminished to use because size for size cast iron is three times heavier than stone it's not going to shatter when it hits a hard fortification and it travels through the air more efficiently heavy metal soon became the standard for artillery projectiles packing all that punch is wasted though if the projectiles missed the target so a great deal of modern artillery training concentrates on accuracy we're precise organization and we deal in precision we is our Tillerman measure many aspects of what we do we measure the muzzle velocity the speed at which the round departs the tube we measure the weather so that we take into account for that we measure the accuracy of the target so that we know exactly where that is this quest for precision and accuracy began in earnest in the 16th century Italian town of Verona poking out of a cannon muzzle this Gunners quadrant is the product of Renaissance innovation it was invented by Nikola Tartaglia a self-taught Italian mathematician and the father of ballistic science what tan Talia did was he took the subject of gunnery from being a bit of a black heart he brought it into the light of Renaissance science and he tried to see why the cannon ball flew the way it did Tartaglia came up with a mathematical theory for the flight of a cannonball fired on a flat trajectory with zero degrees of elevation and he did so 120 years before Isaac Newton made his discoveries about gravity there was no developed theory of gravity in tartaglia's time but what he realized was that the Cannonball would start to fall from the muzzle of the gun as soon as it was fired he also worked out the angle of elevation needed to achieve maximum range at zero degrees a shot fired from a cannon quickly falls to earth raised the barrel to 22.5 degrees and the shot travels in an arc improving its distance double that to 45 degrees and the shot reaches its optimal flight path these calculations led tart Elia to invent the invaluable Gunners quadrant the Gunners quadrant allows you to set the angle of the gun particular elevation to control the range and you read it off with a plumb bob as the barrel is elevated using hand spikes you'll see the plumb bob move adjusting the wedges under the breech of the gun causes a change in the barrels elevation of course the plumb bob is really staying vertical because of gravity and the barrel is moving the scale up and down the result is improved accuracy and the ability to methodically adjust the angle of elevation to home in on a target the next major advance in artillery design would not arrive until the Industrial Revolution three centuries later it was then that machine tools allowed for the mass construction of precision rifled components for both muskets and artillery pieces the result was greater accuracy and deadlier strikes American Civil War battlefields became the testing grounds for the new technology Antietam Maryland in September of 1862 this was the scene of the bloodiest day in American military history a day when rifled guns and artillery contributed to the killing and wounding of almost 23,000 men soldiers who survived the fighting documented the devastating effect of the rifled artillery a converging storm of iron slammed into the batteries from front and flank wheels were smashed men knocked out horses sent screaming by the middle of the Civil War we're seeing many many rifled guns come into place now what does rifling mean it's a series of grooves that are cut into the barrel and those grooves if you were to look down the barrel actually turn why we have a new type of projectile high-speed footage of a modern artillery shell shows how these new elongated projectiles behave in the air this one is traveling at two-and-a-half times the speed of sound like a football a shell fired from a rifle barrel spins in flight significantly improving accuracy your projectile is going to come out of this barrel properly fitted and it is going to continue in a perfectly straight line to its target as it spins holding its stability the whole way at Antietam the Union troops had twice as many rifled artillery pieces as the Confederates when these more accurate guns engage the Confederate smoothbore pieces in the dunker Church area they took a terrible toll the Confederate artillery actually refer to that battle is artillery hell and this is where the opposition of smoothbore and rifle cannons really shows itself in the in its deadliest possible form a simple shooting competition reveals the difference between the rifled gun with elongated projectile and the smoothbore barrel with ball these targets have been positioned 150 yards from the dueling cannons first up is this Napoleon smoothbore an original piece from the American Civil War fire the smoothbores roundshot seems quite accurate at this relatively short range but after five shots there have been no dead center hits next up is this 1861 parrot rifled gun shooting the elongated shells that spin in flight fire Wow after two shots the rifled gun is already demonstrating its superiority fire breakdown the ball exactly down the center perfect dead center bullseye during the Battle of Antietam the rifled artillery showed similar lethality handily outgunning the smoothbore guns with deadlier accuracy and greater range Civil War battles would have taken place using this type of munition at 600 700 even a thousand yards and at that point this circle becomes much much larger possibly as large as 20 feet which means these may have missed their target entirely think of it this way you have two cannons opposing one another one is a smoothbore one is a rifle they're trying to knock each other's guns off their carriages and silence that artillery piece this gun could put that gun out of commission and they could not return fire accurately enough to stop them the Industrial Revolution that made artillery deadlier than ever next it would once again change the material from which gun barrels were made this 1943 artillery piece is being decontaminated and cleaned up for display at the US Army's ordnance museum in Maryland a powerful pressure washer effortlessly removes the old paintwork to reveal the original metal underneath steel steel has immense tensile strength and you can also heat treat it you can do all sorts of things to steel to make it the ideal material for building gun barrels but up until the mid 19th century producing a block of steel big enough and with enough tensile strength for a gun barrel proved daunting to manufacturers steel to start with is not a metal that can be used for gunnery they made barrels of steel and they burst until 1847 when a German steel factory developed a new way of casting steel by adding a nickel and manganese alloys the result was steel strong enough for a big gun barrel the transition to steel barrels essentially brought artillery into modern times accuracy range and firepower had all been mastered but there was still one major area to improve rate of fire for this engineers needed to harness the guns recoil stop clear this machine is testing the M triple sevens recoil system one of the major problems with artillery was that every time you fired it you'd have to put the gun back into position after firing is the immense recoil that was produced when the M triple7 fires massive forces are generated without a system to counter the recoil the gun would jump several yards backwards and out of position realigning it would take valuable time in the 1890s French military engineers overcame the recoil problem with a truly revolutionary piece of artillery this is it the French 75 millimeter field gun this original from the 1920s performs ceremonial duties at the US Army's artillery school at Fort Sill Oklahoma this is the grandfather of all modern artillery beautifully we wanted a much faster frequency of fire a more efficient cannon that didn't need to be repositioned after each shot acqua Shakti so was with this in mind that the French artillery developed a new cannon the 75 this was some chasm the gun had to be designed in secret Germany arrival military power in the second half of the 19th century had sent out spies to gather information on other countries guns but the French director of artillery was one step ahead of the Germans Afghani this youngster Chea he organized a series of firing tests knowing full well that the German spies would be there to see what was going on but the guns on display were missing one vital component there hydropneumatic recoil system when the real gun fires a piston drives through oil in a cylinder dampening the recoil in a second cylinder the oil compresses nitrogen gas which drives the oil piston and barrel back to their starting positions before the French 75 the average rate of fire for artillery was 10 rounds per minute a gun team with the French 75 up to that rate of fire from 10 to 20 rounds a minute it is a phenomenal gun the French 75 had a rifled steel barrel it was lightweight and mobile but robust it even had a steel gun shield to protect its crew when we look at this gun and we consider it against the problems that have faced people over the years of making gunnery everything is solved in this gun by the outbreak of World War one the French 75 was the main field artillery piece for both France and the United States 19:14 the Western Front and France the use of artillery in this war would transform combat forever artillery comes into its own in World War one because the pieces are finally big enough to have a real dramatic impact on the battlefield both sides tried the artillery barrage as a means of breaking the stalemate of trench warfare as a tactic the barrage had been established at least a century earlier in the Napoleonic Wars but never had the world seen numbers like these they fired further faster and more destructively than ever before the mass bombardments began and ended at prearranged times clearing the way for infantry to follow only the artillery can flatten enemy barbed wire only artillery can destroy the trenches only artillery can destroy enemy artillery so everything in World War one is going to fall on the artillery what began in the Middle Ages with the trebuchet had now reached an apex of efficiency our Tillery had become the driving force in ground warfare these shells that they're firing could explode into a thousand pieces these shells that they're firing could be air burst shrapnel shells that peppered the ground with burning pieces of lead a million shells were fired in the first week the Battle of the Somme in 1916 that's a million shell was fired by the British alone on a 14 mile front thousands of Germans were killed in that initial bombardment much of the killing that's done in World War one the people doing the killing don't know who they're killing or even if they fit anything at all because the killing is being done from such a distance battles now to place over miles rather than yards for the first time in history our Tillery was the greatest killer in war by the end of World War one 70% of the total casualties had been caused by big guns and just like their medieval predecessors World War one generals realized these weapons could be used not just to kill but to terrorize Germany's Paris guns were monsters they had barrels 130 feet long and needed crews of 80 men to fire them in 1918 they shelled the city of Paris from 75 miles away to build a weapon which will fire a shell weighing about a ton that far consistently is incredible to shoot a projectile so far German scientists had to factor in the rotation of the earth and the curvature of its surface the shells trajectory at 45 degrees took it into the stratosphere where the thin air caused little resistance this allowed it to travel even further the world war 1 Paris guns were roughly twice the size of this German World War 2 railgun though they caused fewer than 900 casualties the Paris guns terrorized the Parisians when they were fired in strategic terms the Paris gun was a flop in technical terms it was a brilliant success lessons learned from the flight of the shells also proved invaluable in world war ii they were put to use in the nazi v2 rocket programme of the 1930s there's no question that the v2 rocket was not only the world's first strategic ballistic missile it's the world's first space system the v2 s created an entirely new arm of artillery warfare and ballistic missile technology became the catalyst for the Cold War arms race between the u.s. and the USSR missiles which are in effect self-powered artillery shells could travel to every corner of the globe no gun barrel was needed and there was no place on earth beyond their reach but even before range became a non-issue some engineers were switching their focus from distance to pinpoint accuracy October 1944 World War two lady golf the Philippines Japanese aircraft attacked US ships with devastating effect but American scientists would soon counter the kamikaze raids with a new artillery invention the radio proximity fuze a first generation smart weapon now the way this thing works is it has a small radio transmitter and receiver built into it on one unit and it sends out a signal and when that signal is bounced off a solid object a receiver will pick that up when the transmitter gets close enough to the object it triggers the shell to explode the radio proximity fuze had an enormous impact in the Pacific helping us ship sheep down many enemy aircraft it was a sign of things to come in the decades and conflicts that followed advanced electronics would start to make weapons smarter and capable of performing many of the tasks previously performed by their crews the EM triple7 has a computerized fire control system that enables the gunner to calculate all the parameters needed to hit a target this weapon takes electronic automation to an even higher level it's called the endless cannon and it's a realization of the centuries long quest to control range accuracy and firepower in our digital age it also aims to minimize the possibility of human error at every stage of firing it's a prototype 155 millimetres self-propelled gun that could soon enter service for the US Army the end loss is being readied for testing at the Yuma Proving Ground traditional gun systems had men in the back that had to lift hundred pound projectiles lift 20 and 30 pounds worth of propellant had to do it under very arduous conditions hot cold raining snow etc we've now taken those manual tasks and put them into the hands of machinery which does it repetitively always doing it right never having a failure Automation is the innovation ammunition handling loading and the firing of the gun is all done by machine where the Paris gun had a crew of 80 the end loss needs just to these soldiers now have the ability to fight the battle and not be fighting a machine they're looking what's going on around them they're looking at what their commanders asking them to do they're looking at the terrain instead of worrying about is the next round loaded is the next round onboard I have a machine that does that form our Tillery has been part of war for 2,500 years in that time its range accuracy destructive power and technological capabilities have reached ever higher levels time and again artillery has transformed the way battles are fought moving Gunners farther and farther from the kill zone and changing the dynamics of war as we know it

Channel: MAHARBAL5022

Views: 720,492

Keywords: Artillery (Military Resource), Firepower, Gun (Invention), Firepower documentary, Artillery and Firepower documentary, Big Guns documentary, Artillery Big Guns

Id: UZtoG6uGuK4

Length: 52min 17sec (3137 seconds)

Published: Sun Oct 18 2015