Hi I’m John Green and this is Crash Course
European History. So today we’re going to continue looking
at European expansion and its impact on the world’s humans. Like, imagine learning that there are people
in places you did not know existed, that they eat foods you’ve never seen, that their
world contains plant and animal species entirely different from your world. What people thought was one world turned out
to be two, and the collision of those worlds wrought devastation and opportunity on a truly
mind-boggling scale. And today, we’re going to ask you to look
at the consequences of European expansion, and consider how those consequences change
depending on where you find yourself. INTRO
Destruction from Iberian expansion was truly extraordinary across the sixteenth century. As Hernan Cortes commented: “We could not
walk without treading on the bodies and heads of dead Indians.”[i]
Besides the slaughter of empire-building directly inflicted by the invaders and their local
allies, the ongoing progress of smallpox, and measles, and other diseases that Europeans
brought to the Americas completely overwhelmed the healthcare systems of native Americans. Many millions died. Within a century, the population of native
Americans had fallen perhaps by as much as 90%. Throughout the Spanish Empire in the Americas
the colonizers made use of existing political structures that were already in place for
collecting taxes and otherwise maintaining order. Even as the Spanish king appointed elite men
from Spain as viceroys enforcing civil and military rule over what had been the Incan
Empire for instance, the Incan systems of roads and communication networks facilitated
Spanish domination. It’s also important to remember that because
the Spanish had never before experienced almost three- thousand-mile-long imperial operation,
like the one the Incans had, the Spanish had very little understanding of how to maintain
its functions or to provide for its upkeep. Much as the Spanish empire initially depended
on brute force, sustaining it required practical interactions with conquered people and in
many cases their cooperation. The rewards of empire for the Spanish were
truly astonishing. Thanks to the seizure of art and religious
objects made with precious metals, the discovery of mines, and the know-how of native Americans
and others in running those mines, by the mid-sixteenth century silver and gold were
pouring into Spain. And what had been a very poor kingdom became
a very very rich one. Let’s go to the Thought Bubble. It’s now believed that pre-Columbian peoples
knew how to use liquid mercury to process silver and gold--a method that’s still used
today. It was also used by the Spanish
and by the end of the century the Portuguese had discovered precious metals in Brazil,
too. The Portuguese cut down trees in Brazillian
forests to trade in Brazilwood. And sugar production flourished across the
Caribbean beginning in Jamaica in 1515 and eventually spreading across tropical and forested
regions of the New World where the vast tracts of trees could be felled to feed the fires
needed for sugar refining.To launch and sustain all these enterprises—mining, metallurgy,
sugar refining, lumbering—Iberians initially used the forced labor and know-how of local
peoples, as I mentioned earlier. The Spanish government awarded its soldiers
and adventurers encomienda, that is the labor of local people on a large plot of land. But there were critics of this system among
Europeans, perhaps most notably Bartolomé Las Casas, a Catholic missionary who had helped
in the savage conquest of Cuba and who had received an encomienda for his participation. But then the preaching of a Dominican friar
made him see conquest in a different light and he began a campaign on behalf of local
people. Las Casas, while underscoring the benefits
of conversion to Christianity, lambasted his fellow conquerors for their murder, brutality,
and pillage. He wrote of native Americans, “To subject
them first by warlike means is a form and procedure contrary to the law … and gentleness
of Jesus Christ.” Las Casas wrote much more and lobbied the
Spanish court (some would say he harassed it), beginning in some historians’ minds
the drive for what are considered today human rights. Thanks, Thought Bubble. Las Casas’ story is a reminder that the
cause of human rights always needs people who have them in order to press it forward. But ultimately the people who are responsible
for expansions in human rights are the people who are denied them and insist upon their
humanity anyway. So to shift perspectives for a moment, some
Europeans were advocating for human rights but many many people without those rights
were advocating for them. And as for indigenous people in the New World,
to present one story of their response to colonization would be inaccurate--at times,
communities and individuals resisted; at times, some cooperated. But it’s hard to overstate how destabilizing
it was to these communities to lose in many cases 90% of their population. One of the huge changes though was the arrival
of Christianity and the demand that the colonized become Christians. Christianity changed the Americas, but the
Americas also changed Christianity. In the face of the demand of the Church that
conquered people become Catholic, they might for instance blend their own beliefs with
Catholic ones. In 1531, the Aztec Cuauhtlatoatzin, whose
baptismal name was Juan Diego, had five visions of the Virgin Mary on a sacred Aztec spot
of the corn goddess, near Mexico City. Mary’s miracles left an imprint of her form
on Juan Diego’s cape. And on the cape, Mary appeared to be an Aztec
woman wearing a robe with Aztec designs and symbols. This version of Mary, known as Our Lady of
Guadalupe, was brown-skinned and was often called, “the dark virgin.” Many shrines to Our Lady of Guadalupe were
built, and her story was written down both in Spanish and in the Aztec language, Nahuatl. Our Lady of Guadalupe replaced some of the
local goddesses that were suppressed by the Christians. Women in particular took up devotion to her
as a symbol of motherhood. And today, Our Lady of Guadalupe’s basilica
in Mexico City is said to be the most visited shrine in the world. It wasn’t too long before other European
powers, eyeing these profits, sought to literally capture Spanish wealth. Like English privateer Francis Drake began
his career of attacking Spanish shipping in the 1560s and often seized huge fortunes for
the queen and investors in his voyages. While circumnavigating the globe, he captured
stores of Spanish gold and silver from ships along the west coast of South America. In some cases, a single seizure might yield
the equivalent of an entire year’s income for the royal treasury. You heard that right--taking down one Spanish
ship could equal all the tax collection in England for a year--which gives you a sense
of just how much wealth was being extracted from colonies. No wonder Elizabeth knighted Drake in 1581
after he returned from his historic circumnavigation—which was only the second circumnavigation of the
globe in European history at the time. And Drake made it home Magellan. Stan am I allowed to make a joke about Magellan
dying. Has enough time passed? Stan says “yes”. Right. So the French, Dutch, and other treasure-hungry
people joined the English in Atlantic piracy, which increased the wealth of many European
kingdoms and individuals of course. But those same European states also began
imitating the Portuguese and Spanish in global exploration, trade, and eventually settlement. In 1497, Italian sailor John Cabot, which
was not his Italian name by the way. I’ve always found it very funny that the
two most famous Italian sailors in history are named John Cabot and Christopher Columbus. At any rate John Cabot commissioned by Henry
VII of England and landed somewhere north of Maine, probably on the Canadian coast. And then returned to London to great acclaim. The English established the East India Company
in 1600 to focus on their exploration efforts and the Dutch founded a similar United East
India Company in 1602, which brought together several trading companies from various Dutch
states. And other governments chartered similar corporations. These companies performed a variety of functions
from gathering investors, and building ships, to raising armies and taking over new territory
and enslaving people to work conquered land. Lest you think that like corporations are
newly evil. Which brings us to the slave trade. Initially, Portuguese sailors sought to catch
Africans they happened to spot along the coast, and then sell them as slaves in Europe. But by the end of the sixteenth century, the
capture of Africans for sale to Europeans became routine and then eventually a massive
business for both African slade traders and Europeans after 1650. And this was also partly due to disease and
the devastation of colonization. The Spanish had trouble with sugar production
in the Caribbean after the native Taino people had been wiped out by disease; the British
then took over and began importing African slaves to work in sugar plantations. By the eighteenth century British slavers
had taken the lead in the Atlantic trade. Partly due to petitions like those from Las
Casas, Spanish rulings that Native Americans could not be enslaved led the Spanish landowners
and mine operators to import Africans and Asians to stay within the law, which did not
yet say that you know people could not be enslaved. Some Asian slaves, once brought to the Spanish
Empire, were able to pass as local people, and claim their freedom on that basis. But almost everyone who was enslaved died
in slavery. Life expectancy was very low; all manner of
mistreatment was common; and legal protections were almost nonexistent. It’s very important to consider those perspectives
too. And also to consider why traditionally those
perspectives have been ignored. We’ve talked about how the establishment
of transoceanic travel meant that diseases, and people, and finished goods were traveling
across oceans but so were plants and animal species. This whole process is sometimes known as the
Columbian exchange. This movement of goods and people and species
across the Atlantic was tremendously important to history--before it, new world foods like
pumpkins and tomatoes, maize, potatoes did not even exist in Afroeurasia. Did the globe open up? What’s in the center of the world? It’s a pumpkin. You want to know why there were no jack-o-lanterns
in 13th century Europe? There were no pumpkins. There was no popcorn because there was no
corn. #sponsored. I wish. I love this stuff. You know the famous bananas of South America? No, you don’t. Bananas are from Africa. They didn’t exist in the Americas until
the Columbian exchange. So much of what feels natural and even defining
about our cultures and histories is in fact really really new. Nigerian cassava. Irish potatoes. Vanilla Ice Cream in Europe. Tomatoes in Italy. None of this was conceivable before the Columbian
exchange. Europeans also learned a lot from the Americas
about food preservation. Like the Incas dried some potatoes for instance,
which made them lighter and easier to transport, and then would later reconstitute them so
they could be eaten, a strategy which fortified messengers along the Inca’s extensive network
of roads. Similar processes came to be used in Europe
and would eventually be used to fortify astronauts, who often eat reconstituted dehydrated food. And over time potatoes and maize (know here
as corn) increased overall calories available to Europeans because they could be dried and
stored in huge quantities. And that decreased starvation and increased
populations. Meanwhile, as we’ve discussed, the travel
of microbes to the Americas devastated communities there, and a range of Afroeurasian animals--horses,
sheep, and pigs to name a few--arrived in the New World for the first time. In some ways, these new animals were useful
of course, but they also did extensive damage, stripping away vegetation necessary for soil
conservation and trampling farm land. And deforestation began with the clearing
of forests for sugar cane production, as we discussed earlier, a process that accelerated
in Central and South Americas through the twentieth century. In Europe, sugar was initially such a precious
luxury that a sprinkle of it was all that even the wealthy could afford. Queen Isabella of Castille and Spain gave
a small box of sugar to her daughter as a Christmas present to be treasured. [[TV: Chocolate]] Chocolate began as a ceremonial
drink for the powerful, as it was among the Aztecs. But as European communities became wealthier,
more people transitioned from subsistence living to being able to afford goods from
distant places. Treats of sugar, chocolate, tea, coffee and
tobacco transformed attitudes, while the hot water that was needed for making tea and coffee
and hot cocoa is thought to have extended the life spans in Europe by killing water-born
germs. And slowly the English and some of Spain and
Portugal’s other competitors established their own colonies—the English had the unsuccessful
colony of Roanoke in the 1580s, and then Jamestown in 1607, and the Massachusetts Bay Colony
in 1620. Some of these settlers came in families but
many came as single men and occasionally single women. And in the developing propaganda war among
these rivals, English latecomers to the Atlantic world promoted an idea that came to be called
the “Black Legend.” It maintained that unlike the tolerant and
kind English Protestants, the Spanish were bigoted Catholics, brutal and destructive
of local people. That would be what Psychologists call “projection.” Today we know that English settlers slaughtered
local peoples with abandon—even people on whom their own survival depended because many
adventurers had no knowledge of farming. Moreover most English settlers were as bigoted
as other Europeans in those days. But the “Black Legend” was a really powerful
idea in history for a long time--in fact, when I was a kid growing up in Florida, I
was told that it was unfortunate Florida had been a Spanish colony, because the English
were much kinder rulers. So by the end of the seventeenth century,
the rush for trade and empire was in full swing. Plantations based on New World tobacco had
been set up in North America and sugar mills in the Caribbean and South America. Mining and many other lucrative enterprises
as well as the promise of exploitable land kept the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans crowded
with voyagers. All the while most native people ruled by
colonizers saw the vast majority of their labor’s value exported. It was the beginning of the true globalization
we experience today, complete with all of its contradictions and complexities. We live in a world today of tremendous abundance
where a pinch of sugar is not generally seen as a great Christmas present. Starvation and child mortality are more rare
than they have ever been. But we also live in a world with profound
inequality and injustice, where the powerful have legal and social protections that the
weak do not. It’s important to remember that in all those
senses we are the products of history--but of course we are also producing history. Thanks for watching. I’ll see you next time. ________________ [i] Bernal Dias, quoted in Jackson J. Spielvogel,
Western Civilization, 7th ed. (Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth, 2009) 419. [ii] Bartolomé Las Casas, “Thirty Very
Juridical Propositions” (1552) quoted in Bonnie G. Smith, ed., Modern Empires: A Reader
(New York: Oxford University Press, 2018) 64-67.
