The meteoric rise of Genghis Khan’s Mongol
Empire of the thirteenth-century was perhaps one of the most remarkable of Central Asia’s
steppe nations ever to exist, and changed the world forever. As we at Kings & Generals have covered before
in a previous series, over a period lasting about half a century, the tribes north of
China embarked on a blistering series of conquests which concluded with a vast majority of Eurasia
subject to the Khan’s iron will by the Mongol horse and arrow. However, grand military campaigns are not
the only aspect of history worth covering, a view that we hope to prove in this video. Welcome to our video on the life of average
people within the Mongol Empire, beginning with life on the great Eurasian steppe. Don’t forget to check out our podcast on
the history of the Mongols - the link is in the description. Unlike the Mongols of Chinggis, you don’t
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by the conquests of Genghis Khan and his successors eventually led to many Mongol tribes becoming
one with their sedentary conquered populations, this was not always the case. After all, it was the harsh life and conditions
on the steppe which allowed its militaries to field such stereotypically fearsome armies
of horse archers which swept away all in front of them. So, what was daily life like in the steppe
regions of the Mongol Empire, what were the nomadic customs and how did the average man
or woman make their way in the world? Though ‘Mongol’ is often the collective
term for nomadic tribes on the Eastern Steppe among the common person, this is purely because
of the dominance of Genghis and his imperial successors. They were also known as Tatars before the
Great Khan due to the status of the Tatar tribe as the most powerful and dominant group
within that particular geopolitical world. This was particularly common in contemporary
Europe, where the word ‘Tatar’ corresponded with the Christian concept of Tartarus - or
‘hell’. The major tribal confederations are often
divided by historians into groups such as Mongols, the aforementioned Tatars, Naimans,
Merkits, Keraites and others. However, these groups weren’t by any means
distinct in terms of ethnicity or language. For example, Mongols could be found in Naiman
tribes and vice versa, while a form of Turkic language would frequently be found as the
primary language in any number of non-Turkic polyglot groupings, simply because it was
a commonly spoken tongue. In the Secret History of the Mongols, there
is a reference to the Eurasian steppe tribes as ‘the peoples of the Nine Tongues’,
a phrase perfectly encapsulating both the recognised diversity of languages among the
tribes, and a certain degree of unity. For an everyday person, religion was probably
not a divisive issue from day to day, with most tribes encompassing a variety of faiths
and beliefs which coexisted with one another without rivalry, and even adapted to one another. Shamanism was the most common religion among
the Eurasian tribes, but among certain tribes - the Naiman and Uygurs for example, other
‘foreign’ faiths such as Nestorian Christianity and Buddhism were dominant. A Nestorian Christian might privately worship
in their yurt, and go out to hunt with comrades who were Buddhist and traditionally Shamanistic,
for example. Instead of religious uniformity, loyalty and
identity for a regular Mongol tribesman or woman was associated with individuals such
as tribal leaders, and through them, one’s ancestors. The tribe itself was considered the basic
cohesive unit of society and, however diverse a particular tribe’s languages and ethnicity,
considered itself the descendant of common ancestors. This was usually the case no matter how questionable
and mythical that ancestry might have been in reality, as it helped to foster a common
sense of belonging. Inter-tribal warfare which is commonly seen
on the steppe shows us that they were often ferociously independent and would violently
resist any attempts to draw them into a supranational authority, unless the forfeit of one's autonomy
promised incredible rewards, mostly in terms of wealth and booty. Wealth in Mongol society was not wealth in
our sedentary terms - paper money or coins of gold or silver, but was instead measured
by the possession of livestock such as horses and sheep. Therefore, protecting and amassing such beasts
was a crucial concern of the tribes. These groups lived and pastured their flocks
of animals over a vast area stretching all the way from Eastern Europe all the way east
to the region north of China, where the Mongols made their home. South of the massive Central Asain Plateau
the steppe transforms into desert, a vast dry zone dotted with islands of urban and
agricultural settlement. Tribes might enter into formal or informal
relationships with these settlements, often with mutual benefit. In returns for products gained from hunting,
such as furs and other items that could only be gained on the steppe, sedentary populations
might offer luxury goods or agricultural products. In contrast to this frontier area, the prairies
and gentle mountain slopes of the steppe proper were totally blank in terms of static settlements
and towns. Those who would dwell on this barrel but often
beautiful landscape were the stereotypical pastoral nomads and hunters, with life necessitating
a seasonal migration in constant search of water and grass which the tribe’s animals
could live on. After all, if you stay in the same area for
years with a ton of animals, you will strip the area clean of fodder. Though the nomads mostly disregarded fixed
dwellings, their migration routes were often rigid, so they would travel around to the
same places each year. As a result of this repeated use of the same
territory year after year, cultivation of crops was practiced on a limited scale. They would sow suitable crops for the area,
go to their other regions and then return to harvest on their return migration. Nomads were constantly on the move, alert
to any environmental, climatic and human changes around them, and were always prepared for
danger and threats. Because of this, the pastoral population was
a natural martial force. Warfare on the steppe was the business of
every single male, who doubled as a fighter and raider in addition to their primary ‘civilian’
occupation - a hunter for example. Even some women were trained to fight when
necessary. The culture of the steppe was ripe with tales
and songs of warrior heroes, much like the sagas of the vikings. In essence, these nomadic groups were nascent
armies waiting to be unleashed. Of course, hunting with bows and arrows on
the steppe - also known as the ‘nerge’, was essentially a natural kind of military
training undertaken from an extremely early age, and it produced a population of expert
horsemen and extremely talented archers. Therefore, horse archers became their dominant
troop type. Though herds of cattle and other animals were
the primary commodity of steppe peoples, the other basic need among tribes was women, as
they were functionally the means through which a population was continued. They were also ‘hunted’ in a similar manner
to animals because most tribes were strictly exogamous, meaning that they only married
outside of their own clan. While this institutionalised kidnapping of
human ‘prizes’ would frequently lead to intertribal conflict, marriage alliances between
different tribes was very common and served as a stable bond between parties. This is not to say women were only commodities
to be traded in steppe culture, and women often played a crucial role in the functioning
of tribes in Turco-Mongol society. They played a role in all aspects of life,
including warfare against other tribes. Political power that women often exercised
is demonstrated by the regencies of Toregene Khatun from 1241 to 1246 and Oghul Ghaymish
from 1248 to 1251. These two Mongol Empresses were perhaps the
most influential women in the history of the world. When speaking of such political power in tribal
terms, it usually lay with its khan, or chief. He generally rose from the tribe’s aristocratic
elite, but it’s worth noting that it was nowhere near as rigid and strict as, for example,
European aristocracy. A talented lowborn warrior could rise to become
chief if he was deft enough. The choice of a new leader was made in a semi-meritocratic
way, demanding that succession fall to the best-qualified and most competent candidate,
rather than merely going with the son of a previous chief. While this is the case, candidates would most
often be selected from among members of the traditionally chiefly house, but we can see
Genghis Khan as a clear example of where this rule wasn’t followed. As the head of a tribe, the chief, or khan’s
primary responsibilities included the allotment of pastures among his tribal clans, the plotting
of migration times and routes, and decisive, often ruthless leadership. Far from being a tribal form of autocratic
dictator, the chief’s authority was counterbalanced by his lesser nobles, shaman and other influential
individuals. In effect, the tribe was a relatively simple
administrative structure with two main levels - the tribal chief at the top exercising direct
control over his nobles, and the individual nobles controlling their own retinue of commoners,
who were answerable to them alone. When one of the many historical tribal empires
or confederations came about, it became necessary for a lower khan to surrender his tribe’s
independence for the survival of his tribe. The reality of the steppe was that weaker
tribes had to be subjugated beneath the strong. However, a royal lineage or even an imperial
one - such as the Borjigin of Genghis became a larger-scale unifying force with which an
extra sense of unity and identity was derived. The ‘supratribe’ could be joined by a
smaller group in three ways: it could pledge loyalty and be incorporated in its entirety,
could be broken into smaller units and absorbed after a defeat, or assigned to individual
military commanders. Another centre of political power in the tribe
was independent of tribal nobility, known as the shaman, or ‘boge’. This religious figure was the ordinary tribesman’s
link with the spiritual world. His ability to foretell the future and bring
order from the apparent chaos of the steppe gave a tribe’s shaman enormous prestige
and authority, with many khans and chieftains using their shamans as key advisors - a smart
move in their eyes, as the shaman had magical, holy power at their command. However, in some cases it could even be the
case, as we mentioned before, that a shaman might form a rival political authority within
the tribe to the khan, or even become the chief himself - it was a flexible system in
that way. In a religious capacity, the shaman’s talents
were called upon for choosing favourable days for celebrations, important events, commencing
battle with an enemy, advice on electing new leaders and many, many more things. Shamanism probably originated from some form
of ancestor worship, and most Mongol tents or yurts contained images of the family ancestors. On top of this, Tengri - heaven, was worshipped
as a god and mother Earth, or ‘itugen’ was venerated, and between them numerous lesser
spirits. The opinion of a shaman was disregarded at
the chief’s peril, because the entire tribe believed in his holy power and the authority
of his words. This was made even more real because a tribal
shaman was often associated with a larger ‘guild’ of fellow shamans linked with
other clans and tribes. The flexibility of Central Asia’s tribal
nations extended to inheritance customs at almost all levels. A dead father’s camp, or ordu, and possessions,
including his wives and slaves were inherited by the youngest son of the chief’s wife,
though it should be added that it wasn’t the child’s actual mother. In steppe tradition, while the youngest son
inherited possessions, it was the eldest who would retain seniority and inherit the ulus
- or subject people furthest from the family’s homeland. Middle sons would inherit lands between the
extremities. At the highest possible level, Genghis Khan
followed this tradition with Jochi - his firstborn, who received lands far to the west, while
his youngest - Tolui, received the Mongol steppe itself. We’ll talk about the Mongols more in the
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