In the middle of the 15th century, central
and southern Africa is still unknown to Europe. However, for centuries the Arabs operated
trade routes crossing the vast Sahara desert transporting to the Mediterranean gold, ivory
and slaves. Europe is more interested in profitable trade
routes from Asia, especially the import of silk and spices. But the expansion of the Ottoman Empire threatens
these networks. Furthermore, the kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula
set their sights on discovering new sea routes to Asia to corner the lucrative markets. Portugal takes the lead by inventing the Caravelle;
a lightweight, versatile vessel allowing it to accelerate exploration of the African coast. The country establishes maritime trading posts
as an alternative to overland trade routes, especially to capture the highly profitable
slave trade. In 1498, Vasco da Gama reaches India. Portugal rapidly grows in power in the Indian
Ocean and dominates the spice trade. The country grows rich and faces no competition
from the Spanish Empire as the two reach an agreement to define their zones of influence, as per the Treaty of Tordesillas. Spain therefore focuses on the American continent. In 1580, the king of Spain takes control of
Portugal to form the Iberian Union. The new maritime power, the Netherlands, takes advantage of the situation to seize Portuguese colonies. Portugal finally regains its independence
and tries to regain control of businesses in Africa. But the country now faces competition from
new European powers settling along the African coast. The situation then remains relatively stable
for centuries, with each country managing its own trade routes. Slave trade becomes the most profitable business. European ships buy slaves in Africa whom they
exchange in America for gold and local products such as sugar and coffee. From the mid-18th century, anti-slavery movements
gain momentum in Europe and gradually lead to a fall in human trafficking and slavery. In the US, a project to repatriate freed slaves
to Africa gets underway. A colony is established allowing the return
of thousands of former slaves. Although there are conflicts with indigenous
populations, Liberia becomes independent in 1847. A few years later, France and Egypt inaugurate the Suez Canal, opening a new shorter sea route to Asia. In the African colonies, interest turns towards
trying to gain arable land in order to grow agricultural products primarily for European
markets. While exploring the land, colonists discover
the continent is rich in resources, stirring the appetite of European powers in the midst
of industrial development. Tensions flare because of competition between
European nations. In 1884, a conference is held in Berlin to
regulate colonization. King Leopold II of Belgium gets personal possession
of a large, little-known area in the heart of the continent. Germany, Spain and Italy seize territories,
while the UK receives Egypt. Henceforth, countries can stake claim to any
land they physically occupy. European nations, boosted by their superior
military technology, engage in a race for control of the largest possible territory
at the expense of local kingdoms and empires. In most cases, land is stolen and redistributed
to European settlers. Indigenous people are subject to taxes, but
have no money to pay them. So they find themselves working in the fields
or in mines, which become a form of forced labor. Italy, which controls Eritrea and Somalia,
fails to conquer the empire of Abyssinia which gains international recognition as a sovereign
nation. After the discovery of diamonds and gold in
the south of the continent, the British empire expands to take over the states of Transvaal and Orange, both of which were founded by the Boers mainly descendants of Dutch settlers
who fled following the arrival of the British. In 1908, King Leopold II cedes Congo to Belgium. Two years later, after long negotiations,
southern British colonies of the continent gain independence, forming the Union of South
Africa. The new country remains linked to the British
empire by becoming a dominion, ceding certain powers to the British crown. During the World War I, hundreds of thousands
of men from the colonies are sent to European and African frontlines. The United Kingdom, France, Belgium and South
Africa take over the German colonies. At the end of the war, a separatist revolution
breaks out in Egypt. The UK is forced to recognize the end of its
protectorate status, but the country retains control of the Suez Canal by maintaining a military presence. In 1935, fascist Italy again tries to conquer Abyssinia. This time the Italian army is successful in
gradually seizing territories, but Abyssinia would never sign an armistice. World War II breaks out in Europe, and again, hundreds of thousands of Africans are involved in fighting on different fronts. Italy, allied with Nazi Germany, loses its
colonies on the continent. At the end of WWII, Abyssinia becomes Ethiopia
and regains its sovereignty. Talks are held at the United Nations to discuss
the future of other Italian colonies. With European nations weakened by war, the
United States leans in. Fearing the rise of the Soviet Union and communism
in the world, the country supports the independence of colonies and their admission to the United
Nation. When an insurrection breaks out in Madagascar
against French occupiers, it is brutally suppressed. Italy eventually gets control of Somalia for
another 10 years, while Libya becomes independent. Kenya also begins an anti-colonial uprising that would last 8 years and result in many civilian victims. In 1952, the Egyptian army overthrows the
monarchy and begins anti-colonial policies. On the one hand, the country makes contact
with the Soviet Union to provide arms. On the other, it provides military support to aid Algerian nationalists against the French occupation. Egypt also claims control of Sudan, and nationalizes the Suez Canal, chasing away the French and the British. In response, they combine with Israel to organize
a surprise attack on Egypt. The offensive is a success, but is stopped
after the USSR’s threat of nuclear war. The US then steps in and orders an end to
the offensive. The event marks the end of the British and French
domination on the continent. Aware of losing their grip on power, France
and the UK try to moderate their policy and maintain influence on the continent. Britain supports the independence of Sudan
to prevent the country coming under Egyptian control. The same year, France, which is mired in war
in Algeria, recognizes the independence of Morocco and Tunisia to avoid the spread of violence. The UK is ready to recognize the independence
of its colonies, in some cases if the new governments join the Commonwealth, an intergovernmental
organization headed by the British crown. France for its part tries to set up a Franco-African
community. All colonies accept the proposal with the
exception of Guinea, which then gains independence. In 1960, a new wave of colonies gaining independence
ends this project. France withdraws but maintains economic control
over the region with the CFA franc currencies. The same year, the Belgian Congo also gets
independence and becomes the Congo-Leopoldville. France tries to maintain control over Algeria
at all costs. But violent repression and massacres of local
populations makes them lose support of the French people and the international community. Despite violence committed by some of its
own forces, Algerian separatists take the advantage by playing the diplomatic card and gaining debates at the UN. France, defensive at first, tries the empty-chair policy, and in 1962 finds itself forced to recognize the independence of Algeria. South of the continent, while the British
lose their last colonies, Portugal also finds itself in trouble. Despite large investments and significant
migration of Portuguese to Angola, war breaks out and spreads into other colonies, causing
the country to invest heavily in military efforts. Finally, a revolution in Portugal overthrows
the regime. The new government recognizes the independence of the colonies and organizes emergency repatriation of its settlers. To the north, Morocco pressures Spain to quit
the Western Sahara. When the Spanish finally depart, it captures
two thirds of the liberated country. While European nations are no longer present
in Africa, Southern Rhodesia is the only country whose independence was obtained by British
colonists who hope to themselves found a country ruled by white people. The country is not recognized in the UN and
comes under great international pressure. In 1980, it yields and a transitional government
is set up to form Zimbabwe. Despite the end of European presence in Africa, the continent will still have to face various forms of neo-colonialism. World powers and multinationals influence
and sometimes destabilize African countries with the aim of gaining its wealth and generating
huge profits at the expense of local populations.
