It’s 338 BC. After more than two decades of rule, Philip II of Macedonia was at the height of his power. Together with his son, a certain Alexander,
he descended with his army into the plains of Boeotia where he was about to fight against
an alliance led by Thebes and Athens, for the supremacy over the whole of Greece… By mid 4th century BC, Athens, Sparta, and Thebes
were the dominant city-states in the Aegean, vying for power sometimes as allies and sometimes
as enemies. To the north lay Macedonia, regarded by the
city-states of southern Greece to be little more than barbaric, who’s people spoke a
barely-recognizable version of the Greek language. The kingdom was under constant pressure from its’ neighbours, but this all changed in 359 BC when Philip II, a leader of a shrewd breed, became ruler of Macedonia. He inherited an unstable and weak realm, but
from the onset of his reign he set into motion a series of military reforms that would have
a profound impact . He was one of the first generals in history
to build a lasting intelligence gathering system that will support his army both in
the field and on campaign. He formed an engineer corps, which led to
the construction of the first torsion catapult in history. Equipment was redesigned to make his infantry
more lightweight than the hoplites, which gave his phalanx the ability to cover greater
distances at a faster pace on the march. The hoplite spear was replaced with the much
longer two-handed sarissa. The additional length gave the Makedonian phalanx a tactical
advantage over the hoplite as it negated their deadly ability to engage in close quarter
combat. Philip introduced innovative tactical reforms, which showed his deep understanding of his
enemies’ strengths and weaknesses, as well as his own ability to adapt. In addition, the new Macedonian king revolutionized
the use of cavalry by organizing it into an effective, cohesive unit that had a crucial
role in the field of battle, whereas previously Greek cavalry was purely a supporting element
of the army, used to flank, harry, and pursue, but never to deal a decisive strike. Philip’s military reforms were ahead of
their time and he used his now reformed, professional army against his neighbours, the Thracians,
Illyrians, Paeonians, as well as any city-states that drew his wrath, and, most importantly,
he took cities in northern Aegean that were vital for grain shipments to Athens, which
the Macedonians regularly intercepted, greatly affecting the city’s food supply. Added to this, Philip’s success on the battlefield got him a seat on the Amphictyonic Council,
an association of Greek city-states, which the Athenians viewed as a further insult. Meanwhile, the ten years long Third Sacred
War, fought over Phocis’ cultivation of sacred land near Delphi, saw the decline of
Theban hegemony over Greece, exhausting all participants in the war except Macedonia. And, showing leniency towards Phocis , by 346 BC Philip forced a strained peace on Athens and
its’ allies, with the exception of Sparta. Apprehensive about their northern neighbours, Athens sought an ally in Thebes. The two had long been considered enemies,
but they now had a common foe: Philip. In addition, the two city-states relied on
a famous orator Demosthenes, to dissuade the states of the Peloponnese from entering an alliance with Philip and charged him with
forming a Hellenic league to withstand the Macedonian army. And he also sought aid by
looking east to Persia, who disliked Philip for his presence near the Anatolian coast,
although they refused to openly join the conflict. By 340 BC, the two sides were effectively
at war and this political maneuvering made it clear that a decisive battle against Makedonia
could not be avoided. Hostilities began in the east, where Philip
besieged Perinthos and Byzantion, perhaps because of their failure to meet obligations
to provide troops for the Thracian conflict. But without a fleet to blockade the two cities,
supplies kept coming in from Persia and Athens, and after several months Philip abandoned
the two sieges. While Athens celebrated this as a glorious
victory, the Macedonian King turned to deal with the root of the problem, rather than
be detained by Byzantion. Because he already planned to invade Persia,
Philip needed a united Greece behind him and wanted to be seen as a unifier, so a further
escalation of conflict was most unfavourable. But, luckily, his campaign became linked with the new Fourth Sacred War, caused by the cultivation
of land sacred to Apollo by citizens of Amphissa. Conveniently, Philip was chosen to lead the Amphictyonic League in settling matters with
Amphissa, which gave him a pretext to campaign in southern Greece. In early 339 BC, Philip’s army reached the
pass of Thermopylae only to find it blocked by the Theban army. In addition, Athenian and Theban troops guarded the most strategic mountain passes, blocking
the way south towards Thebes. Lacking supplies for a prolonged campaign,
Philip turned back, retreating out of sight… But the shrewd king’s agents began spreading
rumors that the Macedonian army was about to withdraw back home. This is instilled a sense of security and
as the months passed, those guarding the passes grew restless as the centuries-old
animosity between Thebes and Athens resurfaced. Catching the Athenians with their guard down, Philip suddenly re-appeared. The garrison was driven back as the Makedonian army marched into Phocis. A secondary attack was launched that destroyed
the garrison in the Gravia pass, with Amphissa taken soon after, as well as Naupaetus further
west, which secured the flank and access to the Gulf of Corinth. Philip himself proceeded south to Elatea. His lenient treatment of the Phocians at the end of the previous Sacred War several years ago bore fruit. He now gained a valuable
ally and was welcomed to establish a base of operations in Elatea, with supplies readily
available for his army. He spent several months there, discharging
responsibilities to the Amphictyonic Council in settling the situation with Amphissa, by
turning the city over to Delphi . The Macedonian King then offered peace, wishing
to stay on good terms with Thebes, who could provide elite hoplite troops, and Athens,
on who’s powerful navy he counted on for his planned invasion of Persia. But… Demosthenes convinced Thebes and Athens to
refuse . Finally, in August 338 BC he marched south
towards Boeotia, where the allied army defended the main road at Chaeronea… At dawn, both armies began deploying. Thebans
and Athenians chose the battlefield carefully. With mountains to the south and the Kifisos
river to the north, their slanted line was secured on both flanks. Philip mirrored their formation and placed
on his far right his missile troops. The King himself commanded the infantry on the right, troops that he called his “picked men", armed similarly to traditional Greek
hoplites, but wearing light or no body armour and carrying a spear 2-3m in length. Deployed in the center was the Macedonian
phalanx, armed with 4-6m long sarissas. They arrayed 15 to 20 ranks deep, forming
an impenetrable wall of spears. Another block of infantry formed to the left
of the center, with light Thessalian and heavy Macedonian Companion cavalry further left,
commanded by the 17-year old Prince Alexander. Another contingent of missle troops was stationed on the far left. All told , Philip commanded some 30,000 infantry
and 2,000 cavalry. The Coalition army’s left flank was formed
by the well-equipped Athenian heavy infantry. But despite being better equipped, wearing
heavy body armour, large shields, hoplite helmets and 2-3m spears, the Athenians were
inexperienced and, unlike the battle-hardened Macedonians, for most hoplites in Athenian
ranks this battle would be their first. The center consisted of hoplites from various
Greek city-states and likely a contingent of mercenaries, paid by Athens, who’s fighting
prowess served to bolster the mixed force. Thebans on the right formed the largest portion
of the coalition army, consisting entirely of extremely well-trained and drilled hoplites. On the far right arrayed the Theban “Sacred
Band”, composed of 150 pairs of male lovers, who fought fiercely to protect and impress
their partners. This unit was probably the most elite on the
battlefield. In total, Coalition forces numbered some 35,000. As midmorning approached , Philip led his
“picked men” forward. The rest of the Makedonian army remained in
place, keeping their slanted formation. Philip ordered Alexander to wait for a moment
of crisis to occur, before joining the battle. Although it was perhaps risky to put such
responsibility on the shoulders of a 17-year-old, the Prince was already an experienced and
exceptionally talented battlefield commander and the King felt that Alexander could judge
when to act. As Philip’s troops approached the enemy,
his missile troops advanced forward. Peppering the Athenians with projectiles,
they sought to disrupt their formation and lure them into attacking. But, despite seeing the numerically inferior
and lightly armoured Macedonian infantry approaching at a deliberate pace, the Athenian line stayed
put. As Macedonian troops came to within 50 metres
of the enemy line, Philip ordered his men to charge! It is said that a desperate fight developed
on the plain beneath Chaeronea, as Philip’s experience troops inflicted heavy casualties,
but couldn’t break the Athenians. On the Makedonian left, Alexander then ordered
the center and left flank to slowly advance. He wanted to prevent his father’s contingent
from becoming isolated, and his advance kept pressure on the Coalition center, especially
the Thebans on the right. This kept the Greek allies in place, denying
any chance of reinforcements for the embattled Athenians on the left. By now, Philips’ elite infantry traded blows
with the Athenians for hours, the ground beneath them awash with blood. Finally, the Macedonian king could see that
the Athenians were tired and thirsty under the hot August noon sun, but incredibly, he
gave the order to retreat! As Philip’s right began a slow, orderly
withdrawal, the elated Athenians chaotically surged forward, thinking the enemy was on
the run. Across the field, Alexander watched closely
as his father withdrew, waiting for the right time to act. The Phalanx in the center also fell back,
keeping contact with Philip on the right. The Greek center was now faced with the dilemma
of either staying in contact with the Athenians on their left or the Thebans on their right. Part of the Coalition center shifted to the
left to keep pace with the advancing Athenians and, seeing the Makedonian right and phalanx
in the center retreating, they rushed forward to square up against the fleeing enemy. Now! Alexander lunged forward at the helm of the
Companion cavalry, realizing this was the crucial moment to strike, as Philip successfully
goaded the enemy into a chase, effectively breaking up their formation. As he galloped across the field, the young
Prince signalled the infantry and missile troops on the Macedonian left to advance on
the Theban line! The King’s faith in his son paid off. Seeing Alexander cutting across the enemy’s
battle line was the moment to order his own troops to stand and fight! What seemed until now like an onslaught of the allied Greek troops became a bloodbath. Men were crushed in shield-to-shield fighting,
as Philip pushed the Athenians back, while the Greek hoplites in the center ran into
a bristling wall of spears of the Macedonian phalanx that was now relentlessly moving foward. Meanwhile, the Macedonian infantry on the
left and the second block of phalanxes closed in on the Greek troops in the center. At that moment, the sound of thundering hooves
grabbed the attention of both armies. Charging head long ahead of the Companions
and Thessalians, Alexander steered his men around the flank of the Coalition center,
crushing the Greek troops in the famous Hammer and Anvil maneuver. Within a matter of minutes, Greek formation
in the center disintegrated, as the Macedonian cavalry sent survivors fleeing southward. Up the field, the Athenians lost heart, and
began fleeing the carnage inflicted upon them by Philip’s troops. The Thebans now remained isolated as Alexander
and his Companions, and the Thessalian cavalry pressed their left flank. Their cohesion was soon shattered and streams
of Theban warriors started fleeing. One exception was the Sacred Band, who made
a brave last stand. They fought off the Macedonian infantry on
the left, as well as Alexander’s Companion cavalry. But, before long, the heavy fighting took
its’ toll and the 300 warriors of the Sacred Band were wiped out, their men scattered on
the ground. Losses on the Makedonian side weren’t recorded, but despite nearly six hours of intense fighting, casualties on both sides were unexpectedly light. With his victory on the plain near Chaeronea,
Philip of Macedon was now the leading political figure on the Greek peninsula. Rather than besieging either Athens or Thebes,
he was surprisingly lenient with the two cities, and the rest of Greece. He knew that he needed allies for his forthcoming
campaign against Persia. To that end, in 337 BC he founded the League of Corinth, with Macedon the "first among equals". This coalition was the basis for the Macedonian
invasion of Asia in 334. Philip was elected hegemon, as the army began
assembling…
