Wings Over The World - "A Tale Of Two German Giants"

at the end of the Second World War the once thriving German aviation industry was in ruin the previous five years had seen the idealistic dream of flight turned german dreams into a terrible wartime nightmare from this destruction German Aviation has blossomed anew and now fully revitalized it pays its rightful part as a major contributor to European aviation to massive corporations once dominated German aviation mbb Germany's largest aircraft conglomerate and Danya until recently the country's last independent aircraft producer these companies that began of the very dawn of twentieth-century aviation were established by two of history's true pioneers vide Messerschmitt and Claude Dona of the two men toward Dorniers Korea was the longest spanning the whole spectrum of aviation development from the airship to space exploration born in 1884 Dornier was a most reluctant genius his first ambition was to be an architect Dorniers school-record was however undistinguished yet after leaving school he enrolled at the Munich Technical University where he gained an excellent engineering degree it was on a trip to Lake Constance in 1910 the Dornier first saw Count von Zeppelin and his airships Zeppelin had become a national hero in Germany and despite many setbacks was pioneering the development of lighter-than-air flight Daumier inspired by this charismatic figure applied for a job to his surprise he was summoned to Friedrichshafen at this time many Arabs were being lost through a new and mysterious problem metal fatigue floor Daumier came up with a new type of metal flange the both reduced weight and added strength it was this breakthrough that enabled much larger Zeppelin's to be constructed so paving the way for both military and civil development in the following years the Zeppelin company went from strength to strength and regular passenger services were started to many European cities new endurance records of up to 24 hours were set and from 1910 to 1914 35,000 passengers were carried on routes spanning thousands of miles Dornier was soon promoted and as head of the test Department he solved yet another crucial problem that of handling an airship in strong ground winds it was 1913 when dona came up with this unique design for rotating an airship hangar as it floated on a reservoir of water seeing the potential in his new protege Zeppelin gave Dona his own airship design project his machine Victoria Louise incorporated many innovations in metal construction and as the airship was moved out for its test flight Dona could only watch after initial tests the order was given for takeoff with the full complement of passengers on board the Victoria Louise's first test flight also proved a great success this airship carried out many civilian trips before its final conversion to military use the German people soon became captivated by these great airships and many thousands would gather at Friedrichshafen to watch their departures amongst them was a young boy whose name was also to become synonymous with German aviation Lili Messerschmitt born in Hamburg in 1898 Messerschmitt had always been fascinated by flight and at the age of eleven was present at the first German Air Display where the Wright brothers aircraft were being demonstrated inspired by these early pioneers nessus which soon began to construct his own model gliders basing his ideas on Germany's earliest pioneer of flight Otto Lilienthal lilienthal is the unsung hero of world a VA seoun his work provided the first practical evaluation of actual flight and was used extensively by the Wright brothers lilienthal believed that one can only get a proper insight into the practice of flying by actual flying experiments in 1892 after many failures Lilienthal launched himself into the history books with his first flight of 80 meters after making many successful flights he earned the reputation as the first man to fly a practical heavier-than-air machine with any consistency during the next four years he fabricated numerous models which were sold all over the world and inspired many early aircraft designers in 1896 during the flight trials of a new design he crashed and was killed his philosophy and work was to have a profound effect on the young Messerschmitt at the age of fifteen he got associated with a man by the name of heart and Hart was building gliders in those days this was the first world war 1914-15 then and Hart had to become a soldier but he sent postcards to young Willy Messerschmitt on how he should build these gliders and so he did so he got a very girly and young involvement in aviation through this construction of gliders and in fact flying of gliders Clawd Dornier was also turning his attention to fixed-wing aircraft and in 1914 he began work on a large flying boat instead of using wood cloth and piano our Dornier opted for a lightweight metal construction and in 1913 the rs1 was launched on lake constance but it never flew the night before the test flight it was wrecked by a violent storm undeterred Dornier constructed the rs2 which made its first fight in 1916 the aircraft proved successful and the rs3 soon followed containing the innovative tandem engine arrangement that was to feature largely in its later aircraft during the final stages of World War one Dornier also builds a series of successful fighter aircraft pioneering the use of lightweight alloy metals and modern production line techniques but events were soon to overtake Dornier and mrs. chute with the Armistice of 1918 aircraft production was halted the subsequent Treaty of Versailles ordered the wholesale destruction of German aviation and a ban on all future construction was imposed then a measurement escaped serious loss since gliders were exempt from the ban but Claude Dornier lost everything his aircraft were broken up his airships destroyed his business ruined the once busy Manzo plant on lake constance lay empty and derelict despite his seemingly hopeless situation Dornier was determined to continue working and soon began designing aircraft from his home in 1920 he produced a small flying at the LaBella to avoid the construction ban he moved to a boatyard in Switzerland and a year later the nabela made its symbolic maiden flight over Lake Constance but donea soon finds the Swiss facilities too small and with a larger project in mind he buys a derelict shipyard at marina de Peeta in Italy Dornier throws his last hope into a large twin-engine flying boat this unique aircraft designated thaw proves highly successful so much so that the Spanish government orders six even before flight trials are complete it ensures dawnia's future the ball flying boats solid construction and powerful engines made it popular with pilots the first long-distance flights were attempted by the Spanish pilot Ramon Franco in 1924 but during his first attempt to cross the Atlantic he was forced to ditch through lack of fuel after eight days the Valle was salvaged from the heavy seas having sustained only slight damage the crews survival is a testament to dawnia's unique design throughout the twenties a series of highly publicized expeditions were to earn the Dona Company international acclaim the Swedish explorer Amundsen used to Val aircraft in a daring attempt to reach the North Pole but after nine hours flying he was forced to make a landing on the pack ice to refuel one of the flying boats was damaged beyond repair with only limited food supplies the crew worked desperately to tear a runway for takeoff after two weeks the overloaded valve took off and managed to clear the pack ice landing in Spitsbergen several hours later Amazon deterred that he owed his life to Daumier a year later a German at Haven grower made a successful crossing of the Atlantic landing in New York without incident in 1925 alone the vols at 25 world records including endurance speed altitude and payload with the growing demand in Europe for passenger transport Dornier designed the land-based mercury and comet types the latter proved particularly successful and air Lloyd data to become Lufthansa opens many new international routes using this aircraft Dornier designs were now being sold all over the world Dornier himself spent several months in Japan assisting their embryonic aviation industry in 1927 with the ban on aircraft construction in Germany lifted Dornier moved back to Germany opening up his old factory on the constants he soon began to develop one of the most remarkable aircraft of his career the dough X after three years of planning and construction the flying boat was launched on the 12th of June 1929 with three decks and a wingspan of 157 feet the dough X was the heaviest aircraft of its day twelve crystal Jupiter engines third in six tandems were needed to power the machine and each one had to be run up and tested before takeoff after some brief maneuvering he gave the order for takeoff the aircraft lifted easily from the water into the air it was one of the greatest moments of Claude Dorniers life 318 flights through the capabilities of the dou X on occasions had carried up to 170 passengers after a year these flight trials the dou X took off for a world tour every kind of luxury was available on board and Anya himself was present for several sections of the trip after crossing the South Atlantic to Brazil the dough extreme north and arrived in New York to a rapturous welcome thousands of people came out to watch this giant aircraft circular city and after successful landing Dornier is given a hero's welcome on his return to Germany Dornier found himself once again elevated to the status of a national hero he had proved despite his many critics that an aircraft of this size could have an effective range and levels of safety and comfort here the two unguent of the dou X represented the first steps towards mass passenger transport it stands as a landmark not just for German but for world aviation but by now flying boats of this size were beyond the finances of Europe's rapidly collapsing economy Dornier along with other German aircraft companies survived only through generous government subsidies however dawnia's valle flying boats were still proving very successful and Lufthansa began a regular transatlantic mail service to Brazil to supply ships the Braylon and the best valium refueled the aircraft at sea and relaunched them by steam catapult to complete their flights despite the severe Estrela conditions 400 of these pioneering crossings were made until 1939 without a single delay or excellent as well as upgrading his flying boat series Dornier began work on a new land-based aircraft and in 1931 he produced the advanced passenger transport the dole K its success gave Germany a high-performance airliner which could beat the competition from Europe and the USA dawnie return to flying boat design in the mid 30s and produced the dough 19 and after extensive testing including severe sea trials the dough 19 made a nonstop flight from the Azores to New York the journey was completed in 22 hours and 12 minutes and marks the beginning of European transatlantic passenger service the dough 24 which followed was designed specifically to deal with the severe weather of tropical regions it proved highly successful in the Far East and remained in service for the Spanish Air Force in an air sea rescue role until 1969 the dough 26 was dawnia's last production flying-boat incorporating the very latest aerodynamic technology I was built for transatlantic passenger service he was also the first dawnia aircraft to carry the Nazi symbol in the next few years all dawnia aircraft were committed to military use and Lord Aigner was to find himself part of a highly effective Walsh throughout this period of Dorniers success Messerschmitts still struggled for survival during the first war he continued to develop his gliders and in 1922 he and his toast collaborator Friedrich Hart started a small flying school the special demands of glider design low weight and drag combined with high strength and lift led Messerschmitt to produce many new features including the single spar winging which was to prove so significant in the success of his later powered aircraft in 1923 Messerschmitt formed his own aircraft company and after a slight relaxation of the Versailles Treaty he produced a series of power gliders culminating in the successful m17 a small two-seat machine a year later with a strong injection of capital Messerschmitt set up a large company Messerschmitt flew di Bao to meet the demands of the expanding German airlines he produced the m18 a single-engine monoplane carrying ten passengers production was soon started and the m-19 and the m20 followed with the world's stamp of 1929 demand for aircraft dried up unlike Dhoni a Messerschmitt farm no government subsidy and in 1931 he went bankrupt but political events were about to transform Messerschmitts life with the rise of Hitler in 1933 covert rearmament began and huge amounts of cash were injected into the German aviation industry at first Messerschmitt undertook various small license contracts and continued to develop his gliders which proved vital in the secret training of Luftwaffe pilots but in 1934 a new order is placed officially for a training aircraft there can be little doubt however of the government's intentions to produce an advanced trainer for the Luftwaffe for Messerschmitt it provided a golden opportunity to incorporate a range of new designs including a leading-edge snack originally a handley page patent and exchanged by Messerschmitt for the single spar wing design all-metal monocoque construction flush riveting and a fully retractable undercarriage made the M II 108 the most advanced aircraft of its time after testing and some modification the 108 went into full production it's small 240 horsepower engine could manage 165 miles an hour an excellent part weight ratio and a tribute to Misha Smith's background in glider design the 108 became the standard trainer and communication aircraft during the whole of the war period the design proved so durable that it went back into production in the 1960s and competed very favorably with modern designs the Emmy 108 was also the forerunner of Germany's most famous fighter airplane in 1934 the government had given several German aircraft companies the specifications for a fast monoplane fighter both Messersmith and Heikal produced designs henkle had unsuccessfully tried to buy out Messerschmitt struggling company in 1932 and now he poured scorn on Misha Smith's design and the fly off between the two prototypes in 1935 the Heinkel one one two broke the world speed record three days later nasha Smith's design won it back the airplane was revolutionary by it's a very low weight and high power again like the earlier Messerschmitt philosophy and also a good design for manufacturing not with the very optimum aerodynamic shape but with a good compromise to also allow mass production some 35,000 109s were eventually built in 100 different Barrios more than any other combat aircraft they form the backbone of the Luftwaffe fighter strength throughout the early conflicts of World War two including the Battle of Britain although outclassed by the later years of the war it remained in service both because of its ease of production and its devastating effects on daylight bomber raids as this German newsreel shows the success of the 109 made Messerschmitt Germany's leading aircraft designer called upon to make many propaganda films he became as famous as the fighter ace adult gallant and others who flew the aircraft Messerschmitts next project the me1 100 who dated back to 1934 and a specification given to him for a new combat aircraft design work on a series of prototypes was begun and on its first test flight it reached a remarkable speed of 316 miles per hour tested in combat during the battle for Poland it proved a great success only when faced with the RAF did the 1 1 o sudden they become a disaster outclassed by the Spitfire and Harrigan he was soon necessary for 109 to escort the escort fighters however later in the war it proved highly effective as a night fighter a derivation of the me1 mono the - 1 o proved a failure for mr. Schmidt however a new version the me4 one who proved more successful and served as a destroyer and night fighter to the end of the war one of the most remarkable of Misha Smith's wartime aircraft was the giant glider the me3 two one following the success of airborne forces 1940 the German High Command ordered the development of a large transport aircraft capable of invading Britain made of steel tubes wood and fabric the three to one could carry 33 tons enabling small tanks and motorized units to be transported highly vulnerable and difficult to fly due to its fast control surfaces the any three to one never proved an effective design the three to three fitted with four and later six engines did go into production but many were lost in combat another large project was the me2 64 capable of bombing the USA it could have proved a serious threat to the Allies but only one prototype had flown by 1945 in the latest stages of the war German industry used all kinds of forced labour including concentration camp victims many thousands of these people were used in Messerschmitts plant although not directly ordered by Messerschmitt he was certainly aware of their suffering Messerschmitts linked with the Nazis had always been close he owed his very existence to the vast aircraft orders placed by the German military Hitler himself became a regular visitor to mrs. Fitz plants clawed Dorniers connection with the Nazis was more ambiguous the Dornier company had not been so dependent on military aircraft orders and his personal attitude to the Nazis is not recorded apart from the continuing success of his flying birds Dornier produced only one production aircraft series based on the doe 17 unlike other German aircraft at the time the doe 17 was originally intended as passenger transport but Lufthansa rejected the machine because of its Strunk cabin however its high speed and maneuverability made it an excellent military aircraft the Luftwaffe placed large orders and mass production began in 1937 despite its success in the early months of the war the doe 17 soon proved in adequately armed and Dornier produced an improved version the DOE to15 with a larger cockpit for greater visibility and a position for a rear-facing gun under the nose Dorniers pioneering spirit was also to produce one of the most advanced fighters to fly in the wall the DOE 335 was conceived to meet the demands for a high-speed high-altitude interceptor Dornier went back to a patent of 1937 for a unique twin-engine arrangement one pulling from the nose and one pushing from the tail in 1939 extensive trials with models again largely to determine the effect of engine weight in the tail because of the rear prop a tricycle undercarriage was essential the first test flight took place in 1941 with Dornier anxious to see the results of this radical new design after initial trials the aircraft reached the speed of nearly 480 miles per hour faster than any other prop aircraft of the war full production was ordered although of the 60 that were completed only 20 reached combat units by 1945 but this was not the end of Claude Dorniers involvement with this aircraft the last surviving example was taken to America in 1946 where was placed in stall 25 years later Dornier brought it back to Germany and began its restoration despite the difficulty of spares Dorniers engineers managed to reassemble the aircraft and return it to its original condition it now stands as the only example of a tandem prop aircraft in the the demands of a desperate high command for a cheap mass-produced high-performance fighter gave rise to many innovative designs one of the most remarkable was the me-163 seen here on an early unpowered test the me-163 komet was conceived by dr. Alec snitch but production and data development was carried out by Messerschmitt the aircraft was powered by one of the new generation of rocket engines to reduce weight and drag the me-163 had no table or undercarriage taking off on a trolley which was later jettisoned and landing on a wooden skid the first test flight took place in 1941 and after considerable development it became operational in 1944 on the aircraft hand it's dangerous the volatile fuel could dissolve the flesh of pilots and ground crew in a matter of seconds the high speed of over 600 miles an hour made it difficult to control and it's short endurance less than one hour limited its effectiveness in the end the 1 6 3 s inherent dangers led to more aircraft being lost in accidents than were destroyed in combat despite its drawbacks 370 comments were produced and proved a serious threat to the Allies able to outperform any of their escort fighters it caused heavy losses amongst us daylight bomber raids it remains to this day the only mass-produced rocket fighter in the world but rocket power was soon to be surpassed by a new and rapidly developing power source the jet engine nessus myths old rival earns title had designed and built the first jet aircraft the 8178 in the 1938 by yonkers design turbojet it had its first Test fight on the 24th of August 1939 as it lifted from the runway for the first time few people realized that this small aircraft was to change the shape of world aviation with the 8178 success the race was now on to develop the first production fighter Hank or with a significant lead over his rivals produced the Aichi 280 seen here undergoing gliding tests after extensive trials the first powered flight took place in August of 1941 but Heinkel was not alone the field Lily Messersmith rapidly designed a new twin-engine jet aircraft it was to prove to be the most effective fighter of the war mrs. Smith's prototype had its first fight in 1942 and after modification was chosen in preference to the HT 280 which was soon scrapped as with the 80 to 88 the 262 was powered by two yonkers turbo jets despite their innovative design they were prone to catch fire and were generally unreliable in the early versions when the engines did work the aircraft's performance was impressive a rate of time of 12000 meters a minute and a speed of 470 miles per hour outclassed any allied fighter crippled by fuel shortages and Hitler's insistence that it be used as a bummer the 262 never lived up to its full potential it represented both the height and at the same time the end of very Misha Smith's career in 1945 virtually all of Dornier and mrs. Witts plants were destroyed both men were captured by the Allies and imprisoned for two years the ban on aircraft reduction was imposed once again German aviation lay buried beneath the rubble of its factories but the reconstruction of this shattered country demanded engineers and after the release in 1947 both men began to rebuild their companies Dornier moved to a small factory and started to design and build weaving machines a subsidiary which has survived to this day Messerschmitt reopened the Augsburg plant and constructed prefabricated housing later he designed a successful sewing machine a four-door car and his famous three-wheeled bubble car but Messerschmitt wasn't satisfied aviation was of course always on Willie's mind in those days where he was not permitted to do that in Germany and in the early 50s an opportunity was offered to do airplane design in Spain Spain had been a licensee of Messerschmitt in the early 40s in fact the Messerschmitt 109 was built there under licence construction and the Spaniards wanted to do modifications of that airplane including putting a British engine a rolls-royce Merlin in there instead of the daimler-benz engine which was no longer available but then the Spaniards also wanted some training airplanes and Messerschmitt together with the engineering team of that Spanish company developed the first Spanish jet aeroplanes a little twin jet trainer Claude Donghae was also forced to turn to speed to continue his passion for aviation in 1950 he established a technical office in Madrid and with the help of the German a Spanish design team he produced the doe 25 a short takeoff and landing reconnaissance aircraft the first test flight in 1954 proved a great success and the Spanish government echoing the earlier involvement with the avowal aircraft placed a large order once again ensuring Danya survival in 1955 with the ban on aviation development lifted Dornier returned to Munich to build the more advanced dough 27 investing orders resources to begin production Dornier counted heavily on winning a contract from the recently reformed Luftwaffe for a light trainer after extensive evaluation of the aircraft the DOE 27 became the first German aircraft to be mass-produced since 1945 10 years after its total destruction Germany's aviation industry had been reborn a larger addition to the Stoller family the doe 28 was launched in 1960 and proved as successful as its predecessor thornier is still the prime mover in the design program celebrated his 70th birthday as Germany's leading aviation designer ten years later the last development of the Stoll family took the air the sky seventh larger than its predecessor it soon clued a vital element in many third world relief operations the German armed forces also bought large numbers of the sky servants which became their main transport aircraft with the threat of a surprise attack from the east the muffler had asked for a whole range of quick responsive Dorniers soon began work on a vertical takeoff and landing design referring back to a patent he originally made in 1924 he developed a small piston engined extreme short takeoff and landing aircraft designated the DOE 29 encouraged both success of the DOE 29 Dornier was keen to move on to a larger product in 1962 the development of the doe 31 a large vertical takeoff and landing transport aircraft was given the go-ahead two years data watched by Donnie and his wife the test rig takes to the skies some 200 successful test flights were made and Dornier although then in his 80s vigorously pursued the development of a prototype in 1967 the world's first and only vert old jet transport takes to the air in nearly 500 flights the validity of Dorniers vertol concept is completely proven although the DOE 31 never found a commercial market it reestablished German Aviation's lead in technical innovation while Dornier enjoyed success Villa Misha Smits struggled for survival despite a series of highly advanced designs such as the x1 a prototype vert all fighter developed in 1962 his company survived only by building aircraft like the Douglas harbored under small license contracts with the USA but things were soon to change then came a larger license manufacturing programs the biggest one was the Lockheed Starfighter program American license and all that really helped to company in a fairly big scale considering the post-war situation Messerschmitts production soon began to expand in 1955 he took over the Heinkel company writing the last chapter in their long battle other acquisitions followed beginning a highly significant trend in European Aviation I think that was the start of the big wave of subsequent mergers which took place simply because the number of projects which could be offered and which were available in the aviation business reduced the designs were more far-reaching while in the old days about every year or two a new design was done now a design was lasting for ten or even twenty years MPB Messerschmitt Baku Bloom was formed in 1969 to 1970 on that account NB B has now become the largest aircraft manufacturer in Germany cooperation has also become international the transol c-160 a large transport aircraft is made in cooperation with aérospatiale NV B has the major stake in the design work and constructs the hold of the fuse they also produce a helicopter the bo 105 designed and produced exclusively in Germany and sold in both civil and military variants in 1970 having seen his company rebuilt from nothing very Messersmith felt able to retire Claude dong-yi never retired staying with his company until his death in 1969 his spirit has a manager of people and designer of aircraft had molded his company for 60 years the Danya company survives the day as the last independent aircraft manufacturer in Germany and remains at the forefront of aircraft design the Alpha jet an advanced trainer and light bomber is currently being flown by the German French and Belgian Armed Forces in the late 60s NATO recognized the need to standardize its various aircraft types mbb realized that European cooperation could challenge the USA's aircraft producers that idea came to fruition with the panavia consortium combining Germany Italy and the UK this cooperative effort was to produce one of the most advanced aircraft of modern times the tornado given its first test flight in 1974 the tornado brought together all the best elements of previous attack aircraft the tornados most recognizable feature is its variable wing configuration allowing for both supersonic flight and high maneuverability at low speeds in 1980 the tornado became the front-line strike aircraft of the British Italian and German air forces beating off competition from the USA's f-16 German aircraft expertise combined with European cooperation at one both mbb and dhoya are now part of the daemon of benz aerospace book the mainstay of german aviation perhaps it is the traditions of both these countries that have ensured the current success and future of this giant conglomerate inspired by the success of the joint venture tornado in which the former mbb played a major role by building the central fuselage segments and assembling all the tornados destined for the German air force another milestone in European Aviation was achieved Airbus Industrie was originally conceived as a challenge to the USA's domination in the field of passenger aircraft development began in the 1970s with the a300 the mid-range wide-bodied aircraft test flights proved successful and large orders were placed construction of the airbus takes place all over Europe with daimler-benz building fuselage sections at the old mbb plant in Hamburg and rear fuselage sections control surfaces and bulkheads at the old dawnia plant in Munich components via bus are transported around Europe by the Beluga a modified a 300-600 air bus designed specifically to carry wing sections from England and together all the sections together for assembly at the original aérospatiale plant in Toulouse France you the consortium of Airbus Industrie in its 30 years of existence has grown in leaps and bounds an entire family of Airbus aircraft is now produced the larger a310 and the highly advanced fly-by-wire a320 now spearhead an entire range of aircraft already sold to some 150 operators worldwide the 320 the world's fastest selling airliner has already celebrated 10 years of service and has earned itself the reputation as the best short to medium haul aircraft and my Airlines and passengers it's latest threat to US domination of the industry is the a3 double X a double-decker airliner currently well on the way to fruition so far advanced is it's developed that application has already been made to the air worthiness authorities for certification this move follows almost two years of partnership between a group of 20 key airlines in refining the three double X design European Aviation is very seriously challenging the United States in a new dangerous but rewarding field space in the space area European collaboration also started in the 60s and most significant element is of course the autonomous launching capability through Ariane and it's quite significant that Ariane has developed into a commercial venture also not just the government-run venture through the Ariane swass company in which MVP is also a partner among any other companies Germany also contributes a large part to the Columbus project a highly advanced space laboratory that will be part of the USA's Space Station going into operation at the turn of the century it will collect all kinds of information to help man's understanding and future exploration of space the company that has absorbed the traditions of the early German pioneers and set it firmly on the world of stage of the ignition now explores an ever widening range of aviation development the Eurofighter another collaborative project designated the typhoon it has already proved its potential performance against anything currently on offer and the Eurocopter Tiger then ec135 the seed sown by Germany's pioneers continued to grow and bear fruit throughout the destruction that had marked the darker side of German aviation their desire to fly endured their dream continues to be fulfilled you

Channel: Jesse Hamm

Views: 156,909

Rating: 4.7087126 out of 5

Keywords: Willi Messerschmitt, Bf 109, Bf 110, Ernst Heinkel, Ernest Heinkel, Zeppelin, World War II, WWII, Germany, Do 335, Me 163, Bf 108, Do X, Wal, seaplanes, tandem engine, Otto Lilienthal, aviation, A&E, documentary, TV

Id: cBiMIE8VbSw

Length: 50min 15sec (3015 seconds)

Published: Tue May 24 2016