Why Did Greenland's Viking Civilization Mysteriously Vanish?

[Music] Greenland the world's largest island blanketed by ICE 2 mi thick and where glassiers and icebergs choke the fjords [Music] today on the narrow strip between ice sheet and ocean 55,000 people eout a [Music] living but amidst their scattered dwellings lies a mystery from the past now these stones are all that remain of a lost Viking civilization [Music] about a thousand years ago the Vikings Norman from Scandinavia established a colony in Greenland for almost 5 centuries they flourished here then extraordinarily the settlers disappeared leaving behind them a riddle that scientists historians and archaeologists have failed to solve until now the colony in Greenland disappears from his history in about the year 1500 nobody knows exactly why or exactly when this happened it's one of the great Unsolved Mysteries of the Middle [Music] Ages the first settlement to disappear lay on the west coast of Greenland around 1340 an emissary from the Vikings home in Norway sailed into this FJ and what he found amazed and shocked [Music] him the emissary's name was Eva bis when he arrived there the place was empty there was no one there and he says in his report I saw nobody neither Christians nor heathens only some wild cattle and sheep all running wild this means that the settlement was empty the North greenlanders had left or died out probably fairly recently since the domestic animals were still there bison was the first of many who over the centuries have wondered what could have happened to make a once prosperous civilization suddenly disappear today 650 years later later an international team of scientists has come to Greenland hoping to find the answer archaeologists physicists chemists and botanists are pooling ideas and resources among them Dr bent fredi a botanist fascinated by the Lost Vikings for more than 40 years it's a long story it started 55 with my first visit and since then I have spent 29 whole SU and different places in [Music] Greenland outside the few small towns Greenland has no roads like the Vikings the scientists must make most Journeys by boat to help them explain the Settler's disappearance the team is Excavating a key Viking site in a remote Coastal Valley a sheep farmer has stumbled across the ruins of a [Music] Farmstead the team of scientists from Scandinavia Britain and the United States is led by Dr Yeta arabor of the national museum of Denmark The Disappearance of the north scen this this a mystery every new generation have new answ and I think that's very exciting and in a way that reflects that history is very much alive in our society today the team will Camp here for a month making the most of the few short weeks of the Arctic summer perhaps this will be the dig that finds out what really became of the Greenland Vikings [Music] the investigators know exactly where to look for [Music] Clues here they are working through a mid or Rubbish Tip every Farmstead had one and into it generations of Viking families threw anything from the leftover bones of yesterday's dinner to the outgrown Treasures of childhood can you see it's a Horseman we don't know really what those horses were for but we guess that they were toys children's toys perhaps they had something something to do with horses I don't know every object found will eventually be dated because the archaeologists can work out when each individual layer of the mid was laid down the the very top of the of the transect is a layer that just came on on a few years ago and then beneath this we have a recent pet layer and then there's the first uh no layer one could call it which has a lot of charcoal and Bone remains in it the the Viking period is actually documented from all the way from the bottom until um 15 cm below the recent [Music] surface the excavations have helped the team build up a remarkably detailed picture of life in Greenland at the height of the Viking civilization Judith yeses of Nottingham university has gleaned further facts from the few surviving ancient documents and sagas these Chronicle how the Norsemen first came to this unknown land then on the outermost edge of the habitable world the earliest and most reliable source tells us of a man called Eric the Red from Norway who had heard of a country to the west and sailed to find it and discovered it and called it Greenland and then went back with 25 ships of settlers Eric the Red settled uh in What's called the Eastern settlement in Greenland there was also a smaller settlement in the western settlement [Music] of the 25 ships that went to Greenland only 14 arrived but later colonists kept arriving after that the archaeologists have established that the Viking colonists were farmers they built houses like this one reconstructed in Iceland in the style of their ancestors back in Scandinavia from tur Stone and Timber [Music] this is what life was like for the Greenland Vikings they lived in small isolated farmhouses and you have to remember that it was dark for most of the year that far north so they would sit indoors and amuse themselves by composing poetry telling stories carving toys out of wood and ivory playing chess perhaps [Music] first and foremost the Vikings were farmers they built houses stables and cowsheds usually sheltered in secret valleys amongst the coastal Hills they grow fodder and hay for their animals each summer on the high pastures one task for today's archaeologists is to map these settlements here are the remains of a compound one farmer constructed for the Sheep cattle and goats he'd imported from back home in Scandinavia the ruins show that over the years the population grew before their disappearance up to 6,000 Vikings occupied Greenland [Music] in Winter the Vikings lived cheek by jow with their animals Sheltering from the piercing arctic cold unable to exercise in these cramped conditions the animals lost the use of their legs and when spring finally came they had to be carried out to the fields to [Music] graze the Vikings lived by subsistence agriculture in Greenland and they had to import a lot of the things that was necessary to their lifestyle so they had to import timber for their housing they had to import iron for the the nails to build their houses with um and in order to get these from abroad for instance from Norway they exported uh Greenland Falcons uh which were known as far away as Sicily they exported wool reer and in the Early Middle Ages uh this was the only source of ivory it was uh exported throughout Europe and carved into beautiful objects found in churches crucifixes caskets and the [Music] like for 500 years the settlers flourished with the money from Trading they built magnificent churches this one at faly is the only one still partly standing today as their prosperity grew they even sent a message to the Pope in Far Away Rome in it they asked him to send them a bishop in exchange more exotically they offered the gift of a polar bear but this success did not last we now know that in the 14th and 15th centuries something unexpected made the Greenland Vikings disappear from their settlements the last known communication from North Greenland was in the 1410 when a party of icelanders arrived in Norway having come from Greenland while they were there two of them uh decided to get married and we have very detailed records of the wedding that took place in the church at Val on the 16th of September in 1408 and it said that there were many people there both greenlanders of Viking descent and foreigners I nominate Pat s also done properly the band were read out in church for 3 weeks running before the wedding the same icelanders also witnessed some dramatic events while while they were in Greenland um a man called kreemer who had apparently seduced a married woman using witchcraft the Black Arts was sentenced to death by burning at the stake the woman he seduced never really recovered from this experience and she died shortly afterwards after this report no more was ever heard from the Greenland Vikings but over the next few years they vanished apparently Into Thin Air okay today the finds from excavations are all that archaeologists have to go on as they search for an explanation for the mysterious disappearance of the settlers but this hasn't stopped them toying with some extraordinary theories one possibility is is the plague that they died of illness and the colony was just wiped [Music] out another possibility is that they were kidnapped by Pirates it's also been suggested that they've intermarried with the Inuits the native greenlanders other investigators claim the Vikings perished in a war with the eskimos today's Inuits the sagas the ancient records of Arctic history tell of battles lost by the settlers in one 18 Vikings were slaughtered pioneering excavations at the beginning of the 20th century have provided further valuable leads from graves in Greenland's Viking churchyards archaeologists recovered human bones and Farmhouse middens yielded thousands of [Music] artifacts they even found medieval clothing perfectly preserved in the permafrost with their colors still fast [Music] [Music] now eight decades later the bones are revealing new Clues to The Disappearance of the [Music] settlers here at the University of Copenhagen where the finds are now kept pathology Dr Neil linup has been studying the skeletons using the latest forensic techniques and he has made a surprising discovery during the last years of the settlements the Vikings life expectancy fell late believes this was caused by a dramatic decline in people's living conditions and health we have the remains of about 350 nor the average lifespan was about 30 to 35 years but we think maybe there was a decline throughout the settlement period people would be living maybe to 35 years old and then gradually lifespan fell by a couple of years throughout the 500 years of settlement Dr linup searched for evidence of any illness that could have shortened the Vikings lives X-rays of the skulls revealed one telling fact in the last years of the colony many of the Vikings had suffered from middle ear disease a sure sign that their health had degenerated we found that there was a higher frequency of middle ear disease in the later settlement period as compared to the early settlement [Music] period again indicating that living conditions were getting worse more and more people were getting common diseases as pneumonia and then again that would mean that more were also dying from that [Music] disease further analysis of the bones revealed another telling clue we also found that there was an over representation of young adult female skeletons in the graveyards which could also indicate worsen living conditions because we know that uh young females along with infants and the very old are those most susceptible to diseases lup's discoveries point to a crisis the people most vital to the Future of the settlements young women of childbearing age were dying off and in the silted up ruins of a farmhouse the archaeologists found a chilling pointer to the fate of the other settlers lying in the kitchen were the bones of a newborn calf and a Norwegian Elkhound a viking hunting dog the bones were covered in knife marks both creatures had been butchered and eaten the investigators knew no Viking would have slaughtered his hunting dog unless he faced starvation a study of fossilized flies provides confirmation that a famine raged in Greenland in the last years of the Viking Colony at Sheffield University Peter Skidmore has pieced together the story using flies recovered from rooms at The Farmhouse where the dog bones were found fossilized flies can tell us a very great deal some of the material from Greenland that I've examined has been amazing condition I have here a batch of specimens that Max has extracted from one particular room in a in a n dwelling that species telina flabby peas only bread in situations that were warm it's what they call the thermophilous fly and it breeds in decaying animal matter the sort of situation that this fly would require would be found in a dark warm room in those days with plenty of droppings precisely a description of the nor living room in those days as he had expected Skidmore found warmth loving flies on the floors of the bedroom and living room at The Farmhouse while in the food ladder another type had flourished this loved colder conditions and lived off meat but on the top layer of silt formed at the end of the Viking's occupation he found something quite different the warmth loving flies had disappeared and the cold loving flesh eaters had moved into the bedroom Skidmore knew what that meant they'd gone there to feed on the dead bodies of the settlers purely looking at the Flies there was a buildup of carrying in the bedroom and it looked all pretty Sinister really that possibly the occupants had died in the [Music] beds in the hope of discovering the cause of this tragedy the scientists headed towards Greenland's forbidding interior to the ice sheet 2 m deep and more than a quarter of a million years old here an extraordinary scientific feat could provide a definite solution to the mystery of the Lost Vikings of [Music] Greenland Greenland is almost entirely covered by Ice scientists speculated that this held vital Clues to the Unexplained disappearance of the [Music] Vikings the Greenland ice sheet project or gisp 2 involved drilling down through the ice sheet and extracting a core this contains the history of changes in the earth's climate over the past quarter of a million years the core is kept in sections in a giant freezer at the University of New Hampshire in the United States thickness of the ice in the area that we conducted our study is about 3,000 m in fact it's exactly 356.50 th000 years years can tell precisely what was happening to the climate at that time the ice core is a 5.2 in diameter core and what's particularly remarkable is that within any layer we can recover 50 different measures or descriptions of what the environment is like so here we have the best preserved record of Frozen atmosphere for that one particular year the ice cors reveal that when the Vikings first settled in Greenland around the year 1000 the climate was exceptionally fine but it wasn't to last there's evidence when the Viking colony was first established that the weather was actually rather good um there's even a 13th century Norwegian text which says that the weather in Greenland in the summer at any rate is nicer than in either Iceland or Norway um but what seems to have happened is that uh the the weather got gradually colder to measure how cold it became one scientist analyzed the atoms in inside the ice cause Dr Lisa bow of the University of Colorado was looking for dyum most water molecules are made out of two hydrogens and one oxygen atom a very small percentage of water molecules are made out of one hydrogen and one heavy hydrogen which is called derium and an oxygen molecule now these water molecules with the detarium are slightly heavier and so they respond differently to processes like evaporation and precipitation in warm weather dyum evaporates easily into the clouds but when it's freezing its heaviness holds it back as a result less Falls later in the snow so as you look through the snow if you had a profile from the surface of the snow and looking down through we looking down through time you have this nice seasonal signal where um in the summertime there's a little bit more of the detarium in the winter time is a little less Dr bow found the ice cause from the end of Viking times contain abnormally little dyum her conclusion the climate grew colder in fact Greenland was hit by a little ice age when the Norse traveled to Greenland during a very mild period in Earth history the medieval warm period the conditions were relatively mild having lived there for many generations they would have been extremely surprised to suddenly find out in the late 1300s and early 1400s that things were changing around them but the evidence of the Run of cold summers came only from the ice in the center of Greenland to make sure the climate also changed at the settlements on the coast Dr Henry fricky at the University of Michigan compared the ice cor results with data from the bodies of the Vikings themselves he knew that another accurate record of the weather during their lifetime lay in their teeth in my research I'm taking this one step further and I'm using the oxy isope ratio of of uh tooth en anel to act as sort of a a record or a proxy for that of local rain or snow and we can do that because um in the case of the Norse they were probably getting their drinking water from from um little ponds streams melt water from snow so that water from the surface gets incorporated into their bodies into their blood and then uh eventually into the teeth so that the oxygen isope ratio of that tooth enamel can act as a record for what the temperature was at the time that that person was living this tooth comes from a viking graveyard in Greenland Dr fricky only needs a few grains of its enamel for his tests the 650y old tooth enamel is mixed with chemicals and heated to 1400° C the resulting gas is then put through a mass spectrometer this measures the oxygen isotope ratio pricky ran a series of tests on teeth from carbonated skeletons of different ages his results confirm a drop in surface temperature at around the middle of the 14th century he noted that this coincided with the very time the Western settlement was found to be deserted by the Emissary Evar bison this isotopic evidence confirms the results that the people working on Ice cores are getting the cooling that they observe in those ice cores was in fact lived through by the people right there on the coast of Greenland a mini Ice Age could have delivered the death blow to the Vikings farming system Lisa believes it caused their hay crops to fail leaving the cattle and sheep without food for the months ahead if you have lower summer temperatures then that affects the amount of grass that can be grown now the important thing about that is not necessarily that summer but the fact that these people are trying to feed their cattle for the next 9 months of winter on whatever they can grow in the summertime proof that the Harvest did fail came once more from Sheffield University and from an unlikely source fossils of The Beatles that lived in the fields and Hoffs of Viking Greenland when scientists there counted these fossilized insects they found that their numbers had fallen dramatically in the last years of the settlements an irrefutable sign that hay production did indeed slump to crisis levels in some of the later samples there is a suggestion in changes in the forer that the hay field is being denuded that either they are so short of hay they are overexploiting it or they are overg grazing it and the reason they're taking too much hay is that they haven't enough to keep their animals uh alive through the winter eventually reach a critical point where you can't maintain your breeding population of animals and if your stalk dies then you [Music] die but not everyone blames the dis appearance of the Greenland Vikings entirely on the mini Ice Age Dr Ben Fred skild is a Danish botanist after working on the mystery for more than 40 years he believes that the Vikings were finding it difficult to feed their livestock long before temperatures took their sudden dive in the 1340s on his research trips to Greenland Dr Fred skill took hundreds of mud CES from Lake beds he found these contained soil blown off The Meadows in Viking times this showed the settlers had overgrazed the land causing widespread erosion yeah the large erosion area we are going to see is just behind this Ridge and in front of the two dark bed rocks in modern times overgrazing has again depleted the thin soil and Fred skild believes the situation was the same in in the Middle Ages then as now the sheep and cattle ate away the ground cover once blooming with plants like the Greenland Willow here's a large root of a northern Willow the same species as grown there and it has been exposed as a result of severe erosion this erosion started because of overgrazing the Sheep deep uh broke the thin vegetation cover with the vegetation cover broken the harsh wind coming off the Inland ice tears into the soil and blows it away Dr Fred skill believes that by overgrazing the Vikings turned their once fertile pasture into Wasteland Frozen starving with their animals dying around them isolated in the northern Wast behind an Ever growing wall of sea ice did the Vikings succumb to a crisis so insuperable that those who could not Escape simply took to their beds and waited for the end yet the people of Greenland's other civilization the Tula Inuits survived these terrible times this land is Big it it's it's beautiful but it's also very harush it's a harush nature so you have to have some certain skills to survive especially in the old days the Vikings didn't really catch the the meaning of life here of the two peoples the Tula Inuits had been in Greenland for less time than the Vikings yet they had all the survival skills the Vikings lacked an extraordinary discovery shows this to be true these mummified bodies of an innuit family preserved by the permafrost date from around the time of the Vikings disappearance even in death their clothing protected them from the elements the discovery of the mummies was soon to provide a vital clue this brings scientists closer to discovering why unlike their neighbors the Norsemen so tragically failed to adapt to the new Ice Age despite knowing that it threatened to destroy them [Music] the onset of a little ice age in the Middle Ages was a formidable test to the Viking survival skills but they failed to respond to the challenge they did too little too late we can see that as as conditions grew colder in Greenland the Vikings did didn't actually adapt very well to uh the changing conditions at herol nest in in the south of Greenland archaeologists have found clothing from the 15th century this is typical Woolen clothing of the latest fashion they wore capes uh hooded capes with long tails which was the height of fashion at that [Music] time and that was fine but it was wasn't warm enough uh for the conditions that were prevalent in in that period very near there at the same time archaeologists have also found the mummified bodies of some Inuit people who were all dressed appropriately in Furs and hides uh and were clearly much better adapted to survive this mini Ice Age it is thought they were on board an Inuit ship and drowned in some catastrophic accident at Sea when their bodies reached Shore they were mummified by the cold dry Arctic [Music] winds their extraordinary state of preservation has allowed archaeologists to study their clothes they found them meticulously tailored from skin SKS caribou and seals hide thick enough to withstand the rigors of the harshest climates They concluded that as the mini Ice Age enveloped them the Vikings brought disaster on themselves by failing to adapt to the lifestyle and ways of the Inuit [Music] [Music] the Tula Inuits arrived in southern Greenland from the high Arctic in the 12th and 13th centuries they were hunter gatherers and today in the remote areas of Greenland the men still live by hunting boys make their first kill before reaching their [Music] teens their Quarry can be seal walrus POA bear or whale but these men from the isolated settlement of capacit are in pursuit of of caribou over the centuries the diet of the Inuit has hardly changed it still depends on what the hunters bring home so during the mini Ice Age the Inuit didn't go hungry there was always pre to be caught but the Viking settlers never learned to hunt and forage for food as successfully as their Inuit neighbors the noris and Greenland certainly perished in a Time the climatic change a time where the climate changes were mostly unfavorable to them but it's good to recognize that not everybody in Greenland perished at the same time the Inuit who by this point were living in most parts of Greenland survived quite nicely as far as we know through the same period and they were the ancestors of the modern greenlandic population which exists today so Greenland did not become uninhabitable for all humans in fact Some Humans these Hunters uh did fine through that the same time period what did become though was extremely hostile to the kind of society the Norse greenlanders had constructed a society that had all these trappings in medieval Europe the society that had its Bishops its monasteries its naries its rich men its poor men all the bits and pieces in medieval Europe which had come into Greenland this point were expensive they're expensive socially and they're expensive environmentally as well a key question is whether the Vikings started hunting and fishing as conditions changed or did they continue with their old ways farming cattle and sheep as they'd always done animal bones from archaeological digs like this year's from the Eastern settlement offer some interesting Revelations every fragment discarded while this Farm was occupied was painstakingly gathered up by the time the excavation closed 50,000 samples were ready to be sent around the world for analysis and identification some of the bones have ended up here in the busy heart of New York at the City University joining the collection of Professor Tom mcgaven the scientist coordinating the investigation Into The Disappearance of the Vikings by looking at the bones and the information about where in the layers they were found mcgaven can work out what the people ate and how their diet changed over time got a tray of Bones right here where you can see some of these animal bones laid out here this is a a pretty typical set of remains that you get from an archaeological excavation some of these things are cattle bones brought in from Europe here's a little piece of the sheep jaw goats pigs dogs horses uh some of them however are animals that are wild they local uh animals like Caribou animals like seals but govern concludes the Greenland Vikings only turned to fishing and hunting when the mini Ice Age threatened Their Food Supplies and even then they ate very little food from the sea compared to their Viking Neighbors in Iceland in Iceland by late 1200s early 1300s the same period as we're just looking at this tray here from Greenland if we look at a tray very comparable site from Iceland a very small one you can see there's again a bunch of Bones here but they're different Fishbones we have some some birds present here we have little fragments of whalebones but most of this tray is fish including one great big Ling got in there somehow a lot of cod the presence of a few seal bones suggests the Vikings did in the end try to adapt to local conditions and change their diet but the archaeological evidence shows they were still unable to meet all their needs fossils of blowflies from Viking and Eskimo middens have convinced entomologist Peter Skidmore that the Vikings went hungry while the Inuit had more food than they could eat the species that indicate Carion on the miden are the blowflies it appears from the um from the fly remains present that there was no carrier or even marrow on the north minons we know that there was a lot of bone material um but there was no marrow in contrast the esimo mids enormous amount of carryon and masses of marrow they had plenty of it they were availing themselves of the seals and the and the fish in the fiords the Norse economy seemed to have been based entirely on the sheep and cattle so they were there they were taking all the marrow out of the bones and they were scraping clean and probably boiling all the meat off the bones as well the conclusion that one would be forced to draw from that would would be that the eskimos could be propagate with their uh meat [Music] products now the scientists were faced with a further question why didn't the Vikings learn how to hunt from the Inu Tom mcgaven blames the [Music] church the church may have played a role in this strange barrier between these two cultures we might think that the Norse and the Inuit actually did not coexist in green L at all because there are so few finds of Inuit objects on Norse Farms there are so few examples of Norse imitation of Ino adaptation why would a North seal hunter not pick up some of this inate technology and I think part of the answer is of course if you went and talked to an old experienced Inuit Hunter and persuaded him to teach you a few Secrets he would have talked you about how to give water to the seal when it's brought up from the ice he would have taught you about the proper prayers to say as you're doing it or from the church's standpoint what he would have done was fill your head f hean magic so we can easily see scenarios where the church is interest in in limiting contact between these two cultures and regulating it strongly could have had a really chilling effect in terms of effective interaction effective learning between the these two different cultures there certainly was a barrier maintained between them it wasn't accidental it had to have been maintained at some considerable trouble and expense on somebody's part for a long period mgov is convinced that the church preached that the Inuit should be avoided because they were not Christians and if the Vikings were forbidden to speak to their neighbors they would never have been able to learn from them even at a time of Crisis the number of churches they built in Greenland is testimony to the importance that the church played in the lives of the Viking settlers these buildings formed the center not just of the people's spiritual Faith but also of their society it was not for nothing that the adulterous Seducer was burnt to death in the precincts of the church at VY [Music] and from a grave Unearthed in the shadow of the Viking Cathedral at gardar in the Eastern settlement comes another striking indication of the church's power it contained the bones of a bishop uniquely his Badges of office his holy ring and his croia had been buried in state with him there is some evidence that the church in Greenland uh held a very firm grip on the people there uh in the 14th century as well as collecting tithes from the farms uh the church also imposed an export tax which may have uh led to deterioration in income from trade we also hear that many many of the hunting rights in Greenland belonged to the church so although there was abundant whale reindeer and polar bears um people could only hunt these creatures with the permission of the bishop [Music] at last from the stones ice and Meadows of Greenland the scientists have pieced together the tragic story of the Lost Vikings the trigger for their downfall was a sharp change for the worse in the climate the mini ice age that enveloped them so suddenly caused their crops to fail and their cattle to starve and in the cold The People's Health began to [Music] falter weakened by chest infections and malnutrition the young women and children perished in desperation their Elders tried to adapt to the hunting and fishing techniques of the Inu but through ignorance or the dictates of an all powerful Church they learned too little too late [Music] as famine loomed they slaughtered their precious hunting [Music] dogs thus the Vikings finally ended all prospects of surviving in this unforgiving land it seems to me very clear that they were living at the limit of possible sustained existence had they gone over to the innuit lifestyle of adapting more to the environment they probably may have survived but I think that they just came to a situation where it was just not possible to continue their lifestyle but there are still some loose ends some crucial questions that the scientists can't fully explain although they found many skeletons in the graveyards there were none in the Viking houses no one knows why one thing that's missing from this this whole Grim story of the the end of Norris Greenland is where's the human bones and that's the real question we have virtually no human bones from inside Norse houses that are contemporary with the end of the settlement um they're just not there uh we have plenty of people buried in the churchyard but that's the sort of thing that happens in an orderly fashion as the society is still functioning what happened to the last ones and the clear answer to this question is we don't know personally I think the most likely explanation is that the colony dwindled until there were very small numbers and then probably they sailed away and either never arrived or went somewhere and we don't know about where they might have gone scientists suspect that in the face of such adversity the last of the Viking colonists in Greenland opted to take refuge on warmer more comfortable friendlier Shores they may have tried to return to Norway where their ancestors had come from 500 years before they may even have struck out for America but whatever their hoped for Destination they first had treacherous Seas to cross my own speculation to throw into the pot is that well if if you were failing your in your farm and your whole settlement was going down a last resort might be get into your boat and try to to go to the Eastern settlement go somewhere else and Greenland as everyone who sailed there can attest is a dangerous place and just because you sat on a journey doesn't mean you make it so one location for the last of the nor screen letters may be simply at the bottom of the SCA [Music] [Music] [Music] [Music]

Channel: Chronicle - Medieval History Documentaries

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Keywords: history documentary, medieval history documentary, middle ages, medieval history, the middle ages, the dark ages

Id: B4y5S1HVhEA

Length: 49min 54sec (2994 seconds)

Published: Sat Jun 08 2024