[Music] okay it's a great pleasure being here and I thought I would give a lecture about some of our recent work on early peopling of the Americas early peopling of Europe early peopling of Asia and then also touching upon what kind of possible ecological impact could this early people have on the extinction of the so-called Ice Age megafauna it means the big animals that was roaming in Europe in Asia and in the Americas during the last glacial period so I will start because it's as we just heard the the area where I'm working in is called ancient DNA so I'll just want to give you a very brief introduction to the field so it all started back in 1984 where a guy called Alan Wilson from Berkeley he showed it was possible to retrieve DNA from the skin of the quokka this is a quacker it's a sabre like animal that lived and got extinct in south africa in the end of the 1800s so it wasn't a very old sample about 100 years old but it was a very important discovery because it showed that in principle you can go back through time and then look directly at genetic changes instead of simply in fearing what kind of changes might have happened in the past based on DNA from a contemporary today's organisms so a and most people at the time thought you know the DNA molecule is a very unstable molecule and it would basically decay the great due to spontaneous chemical reactions shortly after death so there will be no chance of getting something from the visible past so this was the work of Alan Wilson's group at this time and many years forward people was concentrating when they tried to retrieve DNA from ancient material of so called mitochondrial DNA so mitochondrial DNA is a small genome about some 12,000 base pairs that is found in ourselves and it's inherited through the mother line so you all carry the mitochondria of your mother and they're lying inside mitochondria organelles in the in the cell and you have many thousands of mitochondria organelles and in each organelle there's many thousands of mitochondrial genomes so therefore it has a fairly large chance of surviving if you're interested in specific part of DNA from the mitochondria you have a fairly good chance of it surviving through the past compared to the nuclear DNA nuclear genome is about 3 billion base pairs so much bigger half of it is coming from your father half of it from your mother but there's normally only two copies right so if you're interested in a particular part you know it's very old its degraded but of course so in many years people was focusing on this to try to reconstruct how has the populations of animals and humans and so forth changed through time but what you're really interested in if you want to understand the past is really the nuclear genome another problem that was came forward in the field in the early years was the problem of contamination contamination with contemporary with modern DNA and this was particularly a problem when we talk about human contamination because in these ancient materials the DNA is highly degraded there's very little left if anything that you can retrieve so way it means that it's very easy you know that your reagents and so for your reactions are getting swapped by DNA from from the environment and of course human DNA is a major problem because it's humans were kicked out the far sides as humans who are doing the analysis it's humans that are doing the reagents so there's human DNA everywhere and how can you actually distinguish if you pick up you know an old Viking poem for example and you're doing this work in in Norway or Sweden or Denmark how do you know you know that the DNA is actually from the Viking and not from one of the researchers who have done the reagents and so forth so therefore in many years until basically 2010 the general notion was it's impossible to retrieve reliable ancient human DNA sequences because of contamination and this is why the paper we did in 2010 is very important because it show two things it showed it's actually possible not only to retrieve mitochondrial DNA but most of the entire genome of an ancient human individual and it also showed that if you have this amount of data available you can actually find the contamination and you can quantify the contamination and you could take it into account in subsequent analysis and it really opened the possibility for doing very complex Studies of our past of how the populations of modern humans have changed through time and this is really the approach that we and many other groups have been using over the last few years to try to revisit our history using genomics ancient genomics so one of the areas that my group has been very interested in is early peopling of the Americas and this is because the North America and South America are believed to be the last consonants that was occupied by humans so if we can't figure out what was going on in the Americas I think there's very little hope that we can figure out what's going on in the rest of the world Neverland this over the years many different theories has been proposed as to how was the Americas populated there's everything you know from kind of the school book version that people came from Siberia and back you know some is some it's close to 20,000 years ago there was a land bridge between Siberia and Alaska please ball moved in here into Alaska but then they were stopped because at this time there was some huge I caps lying across North America blocking the way and it was only about 13,000 years ago that these ice caps melted back creating an interior ice-free corridor 1500 kilometers in length where people then according to the kind of the school book version could move quickly through the ice-free corridor move through North America into South America and on the way they did they develop the so called Clovis technology which is huge spare points this happen about 13,000 years ago and when they move down with these huge spare points that killed off all the big bodied mammals or the megaphone on the way master Don's the mammoth and so forth then other people have said well we believe that there must be helping humans in the Americas earlier than 13,000 years ago and they came maybe bypassed these ice caps by following across the route along the west coast then other people have said well it's not a you know it's kind of assumed maybe that it's Native American that are you know the ancestors of these early people but there's been groups claiming no it was not Native Americans that was first in the Americas it was actually Europeans crossing the sea ice that went much further south and you know going like you know it's an Eskimo hunting still etc getting into North America developing the Clovis technology and then was later killed off or replaced as we call it by Native American ancestors coming in from Siberia still others have claimed you know that the first humans in the Americas is people related to Australians and Paquin's etc also when we get into the Arctic part of North America there's been large discussions how many waves of human came in there we know archaeologically that there was humans there rounds five to six thousand years ago but with these people the ancestors of present-day Inuits occupying these areas or were there other people living in there there's even be suggested at some point Native Americans went up north occupying Greenland and northern Canada so if we start with the Arctic my group we collected you know almost all the ancient human remains that exists from the very early human remains from the Arctic from Greenland and Canada and Alaska we also collected early remains from Siberia with genome sequence these we also sequence the genomes of Native Americans and present-day annuities and then we analyze this data and it became very clear that there is two independent migrations of people into the new well doctor so five to six thousand years ago we have a group of people entering Alaska from Siberia spreading across Canada into Greenland and this group of so-called paleo Eskimos are surviving until just 700 years ago so it's a whole population very recently that went extinct and these guys they are amazing in the sense that you know most populations contain several individual mitochondrial DNA s I mean from the mother line these guys we have only found one single mitochondria so it's almost like you know one or two women and a few men kind of crossed over here and then spread across the whole acting north not sick and strangely when we start sequencing them we could see that they were heavily inbred and we could also see that they haven't had much exchange genetic exchange with with Native Americans even though they must have met them to the south so they seem to be keeping for themselves to a large extent and because there's probably so few people coming in there you know then after several thousand years when you meet somebody it's actually a close relative right even if you are marrying you know outside so they become more and more in Britt a then a couple of thousand years ago there's another group of people coming in from Siberia and these are the ancestors of present-day Inuits they're situating themselves in alaska developing a very sophisticated marine hunting technology for whaling and so forth and then as soon as that package is developed they're spreading very fast across the Arctic all the way into Greenland and as these people are spreading the Paleo Eskimos are going extinct and we don't know whether they're killed off by the Inuit or whether it's diseases that's something we're investigating at the moment when we get to the lower parts North America how did it then happen well as a set and a very crucial part of you can say of the debate is the so-called Clovis technology that is you can see the earliest very widespread technology you find in the Americas starting around 13 years ago and as I also said that has been people arguing that Clovis is actually Europeans crossing the Atlantic the sea-ice and the reason being that Clovis technology according to some archaeologists look very similar to the so-called solutrean stone technology that you find in France and Spain around the same time so in other words they're using the stone tools to say well this is a proxy for how people have been moving and how you know how how they were actually connected to each other strangely enough you find Clovis technology all over North America but there's only one single skeleton ever found in direct association with these clothes tools and those of this skeleton is found in Montana and really strange you know in America at least in Montana it doesn't matter whether it's a piece of gold or it's a skillets and you'll find then if it's found on private land you own it so this skeleton had been lying since the 1960s in a bank box in a farm in Montana and then you know I asked permission to go into DNA studies and many people have done this before and they got no no no but you know I sent them the first ancient genome paper and the Torah there she's a molecular biologist the daughter of the farmer who found it and she said well I think you guys might be the right people but I have one one request and I want to participate myself in the beginning of the story and I said yeah I come to Denmark and she said well I have a small child I said well bring the child's he said who should take care of the child what I'm doing the work well bring the blood in Lani as long as you're bringing a bone of that skeleton and she did and we sequenced the genome and what became very clear that this individual is genetically a hundred percent Native American nothing European nothing other Asian it's a Native American genetically speaking and not only a Native American this individuals the group that this individual belongs to is that the red ancestor of basically probably most if not all of the people native groups that are today living in Mesoamerica and and South America so it's really you can say a missing link if you want I always learned in school it's impossible to find the missing link by chance but well it's pretty close I would say to that so it's also very clear right that these inferences which is very often done by archaeologists that you know similarities in tools is also showing recently shared ancestry between groups doesn't need to always be the case I mean obviously hear you talk about parallel evolution I mean I'm not an archaeology so also wonder how many ways can you break your stone and get something useful out of it but so anyways one one thing I want to mention is that this kind of work in with Native Americans is very sensitive so that's very you can say there's historically very very kind of tight relationship very also to some extent hostile relationship between scientists and indigenous peoples in North America so we're spending a lot of time going out to the tribes in the area and engaging with them and their demand for this research was that the skeleton was reburied so the spirit could get rest so a year after the publication the skeleton was actually reburied in large ceremony in Montana where tribes came from different places in the States and participated another skeleton which probably is the most famous skeleton in the Americas it's called the kenabeek man it's slightly younger why the Clovis skeleton is twelve thousand six hundred years this is close to nine thousand years the reason why it's very famous is that when it was discovered at the Colombian River the first anthropologist looking at it you know measuring the cranium and stuff said well this has Caucasian features implying you know that if this might be some kind of European and then they got a que se 14th age right nine thousand years and of course that kind of revived the whole solutrean theory idea that you know Europeans came in first so the tribes that was five local Native American tribes then claimed him as their ancestors said we want to repay him we want him back and the US government in the form of the Corps of Engineers said well we want to give it back to you but then a group of scientists sued the US government said well we don't accept we will not accept this because it's not a Native American we don't believe it's a Native American and there was a 10-year long cold case and the scientists won and the Native Americans were crying because it was the ancestor they believed it's there and system they tried to do DNA out on it but they failed then we got a small piece of the leftover of the hand bone that was originally attempted to retrieve DNA from and from there we can create at the inside genome of kenabeek man and what did it show well it showed it's a hundred percent genetically speaking Native American so what the mythologies the people doing cranial morphology had claimed was well he's either European like but otherwise like I knew which is and then teaching his peoples of Japan right so they published the book the same deal as our DNA data came out just a few months before you know showing this feature of reconstruction of kenabeek man with a huge beard and everything and of course the natives were really upset but now because of the DNA result the whole case has been opened again and actually the skeleton is being most likely being returned to the Native Americans and this was a big deal for them you can see in the states when we published this result there was a huge press conference and stuff okay now we know it seems that this is based on the data available it seems like Native Americans are deriving from the first people entering the Americas but when are they entering the Americas and what routes did they take so one thing you can do with modern genomics this is what we have done here is you can take you can say a Native American genome you can take the genome of its closest living relatives which are Siberians and then you can calculate when did these two populations spit off diversify from each other and you can get a date of let's say twenty three thousand years but that of course doesn't tell you whether that was the time they were entering the Americas right they could just have you know isolating themselves up in northern Siberia somewhere for 5,000 years before crossing into the Americas so this is the problem with modern DNA with DNA from living people you can't place any vents geographically I mean there you need the ancient DNA data so if we start by looking then at the routes before we look at the time of entrance so as I told you about that interior is recorded alright that was open and you had this 1500 kilometer walk through you know with huge ice caps on each side that people believe the first humans entering Americas too and you know I mean if you ever been in Greenland close to you know the edge of the ice cap which is just really an unpleasant not alright you wonder how would it be to walk four thousand five hundred kilometers you know with two ice caps on each side so even though it's physically open you want that do they actually have anything to live from right that there was there any animals to hunt was there any firewood I mean and and to surprisingly people haven't you know really done a lot of studies on that so they're just entombed you know the people could move back and forth through this 1500 kilo meter corridor so we decided to investigate this and we used an approach that I developed during my PhD namely the discovery that you can take ancient sediments ancient soil and then from the soil you can actually retrieve the DNA of the plants and the animals that were living in this place back in time and the reason being that animals through their faeces are releasing cells into the surroundings and also through the urine are releasing cells because of from the urine bladder and that's getting out into the environment plants are constantly shedding you know fine reutlitz and of course these things will degrade right they will disappear but the DNA because the DNA is electrically charged and many parts soil particles are also electrically-charged then some of the DNA will bind to these soil particles and those you can retrieve and then reconstructed so what we did here you have the I&C reais record all as you can see this is the two ice caps on each side here we have Alaska then we have you know lower 48 states and then we went into you can say the last area that was deleted in the ice-free corridor this part in the area and then we drilled de course so we drilled through the water column into the sediments of the lake because the sediments are accumulating through time right so the deeper you go the olders the sediments the younger you get go the jungle is it all that more the top you go the younger is the sentiments so we could retrieve that we could date it and we could retrieve DNA to reconstruct how has this environment been and we could see that although there was an open opening 13,000 years ago it was only by twelve thousand six hundred years that you start releasing a vegetation you see a steppe environment and as soon as we see the steppe environment we also find the DNA from wooly mammoth from Bisons and other step animals then after a few thousand years you start seeing forests coming in there like dispersed forests and with that other animals like elk getting in there it's like Red Deer and then after a few more thousand years you get the foil first you know that you see in North North America today with spruce and so forth and you'll also see a change in the animal life into moose and it's amazing the details we can get out of these sediments we can see when Eagle gets in there we can see when fish are getting in there but the conclusion is it's very unlikely that the first humans ensuring the Americas could have taken this route because its first by twelve thousand six hundred years that you actually you can see that there's a viable system people could live from and by that time we know that at least four thousand years or so there's been people south of the ice caps it's more likely that they use this route later you know when it a real step environment so in other words it seems like more likely that they took a coastal route although we haven't really investigated whether that was a viable route true what about the timing when did people get in there well for many years the general notion was it was first we Clovis people okay that that humans got in there thirteen thousand years ago and then we got involved with a guy called Dennis Jenkins in who is doing excavations in southern Central Oregon in some caves called the Paisley caves and there he's literally finding hundreds of ancient faeces samples dried in faeces and he came in contact with me and I said well could you please find out whether some of these faeces is human because it looks pretty human to me but I want to know who and the to be honest first I thought it wasn't very interesting I thought whether somebody are taking a crap in a cave wouldn't really bring much much important stuff with it but I went and took samples and they were lying in my freezer for one and a half years and then I got a young visiting student from Spain and she said Professor Billy what should i do what should i do I don't have a project and I said look at the in the freezer and that's basically what she did and she came back and said well professor Billy I find a you know human DNA that looks like Native American in some of these faeces samples and then when we looked in the stratigraphy we could see that some of these fisa samples were much older than Clovis about thousand years older than the oldest evidence for cows and of course then professor Vilas live got very interested so so we published first in 2008 a paper on this and we were heavily attacked because at that time the general notion was Clovis's first and people just wouldn't accept that in North America that was evidence of pre-clovis occupation and one of the criticisms that we got I'm not an archaeologist so I never really understood this but was why didn't you find any tools there and I'm like I don't bring my knife and fork with meat on the toilet but I mean maybe some of the American archaeologist do that but anyways we got money because of this criticism to further investigate and Dennis Jenkins was digging and digging and we took out feces and was just to confirm our previous result but this time he actually found two broken pieces of lithics of stone tools and this was in the Clovis layer but the tools were not Clovis tools it was something called the western standpoint tools so Clovis First Peoples believe that everything comes from Clovis right also the tool kits also the people who are living in the Americas and certainly are finding a complete different set of tools at the same time as Clovis so it was a major blow so you can say the Clovis first hypothesis so we know now that at least people have been there at least some 14,000 years and this is obviously a minimum date so where do Native Americans then come from well I always learned in school that Native Americans is a group of East Asian people crossing the Bering Strait getting into the Americas and becoming Native Americans what is strange however is that although their closest living relatives are Siberians they're actually quite distant genetically distant from Siberians and it therefore and you'll never found you can say in Native American in Europe or Asia so it's kind of been a mystery and solely by chance really we got our hands on a specimen here from central southern Central Asia called melt ah it's very close to Lake Baikal in Siberia just on the border between Siberia and Mongolia and this is an area that is today occupied by people of East Asian Enders ancestry I mean different mongoloids groups that's what you call indigenous populations of this area today but we sequenced the genome of this individual and got very surprised because this individual is very closely related to present-day Northern Europeans such as ourselves but it's also very closely related to Native Americans but it's not we closely related to East Asians that Native Americans should derive from so how can we what does this tell us well it tells us that twenty thirty thousand years ago the distribution of people around the world in some parts at least was very different from today and it also tells us that Native Americans are not simply you can see a group of Asian people crossing the Bering Strait in fact all living Native Americans today about one third of the genome which is a lot is deriving from this multi population or publishing very closely related to it so it seems like Native Americans is probably derived from the meeting of at least two different groups of people one group which is this kind of multi European like group and then another Asian group and you can see the child coming out of that meeting is probably Native Americans what about if we go to Europe well Europe has been occupied by modern humans Homo sapiens if you want for about forty five thousand years but who are the first people who live in modern people in in Europe is it is the people related to Europeans is the people related to other groups around the world we actually had no idea so we decided to sequence one of the genome sequence one of the earliest modern human individuals from Europe the so-called Christian d40 it's an individual found very close to Moscow dated to between 36 and 38 thousand years old and what we could see from this genome was a number of things first of all it's not a direct ancestor to present-day Europeans but that you can say among living people today European seems to be most closely related to Christine T 14 we could also see which was kind of surprising that even thirty six thousand years ago many of the major genetic components that you today find in present-day Europeans were already present in Christine T 14 and then another group C a genome of another individual from Siberia Western Siberia called which the Shem which is 45,000 years old and those two together could actually tell us something about when did Asians and Europeans diversify from each other when did they split off from each other because Christine d14 doesn't contain any Asian ancestry while which the Shem is equally distance to both Asians and Europeans so in other word and used to Shem is 45,000 years old so in other words it must have most likely have happened between 45 and 36,000 years ago that you had this diversification of Europeans and Asian's okay if we move up in time in Europe into what we call the Mesolithic the late hunter-gatherers who still Christine is an early hunter-gatherer but then later on the gatherers year-round some 8,000 years ago they actually are quite similar you can say genetically Chu Christian but one thing we sequenced the genome of one of these late hunter-gatherers from Spain from northern Spain and one of the things that was very surprising was that this individual had already genetic adaptations charts you can see animal pathogens so the general notion was that these resistances was something coming with agriculture because when agriculture comes people are living very close with the animals right and then the idea was you're getting exposed to animal pathogens bacterias and viruses but this guy who is a clear hunter Galera is already a lot of these adaptations so it really tells us that our conception of when things are happening are not always correct we can also see that there's been a large discussion in Europe about you know when we get agriculture which happens about 10,000 years in southern Europe and 6,000 years in northern Europe Scandinavia what was what how did that come about how can it be that people stopped shooting bow and arrow and killing animals and start milking cows and cutting he was this dude you can see a a spread of ideas it means that the people were the same they were staying in the same place but they were just learning from neighbor to neighbor to neighbor how you know it is to actually you know you know start growing crops and stuff or was there actually a migration of people getting into Europe bringing this knowledge with it and together with my Swedish colleagues we looked at some of this by looking at skeletons in southern Sweden some of the late hunter-gatherers and some you can say very early farmers and what you can see is that the you can say the hunter-gatherers a you know a very similar to people genetically today found in Eastern Europe Russians Finn's while the why the early farmers are very genetically close to grips so in other words if you go through you can say Europe you can see that the more north east you go the more hunter gallery you become the more south you go the more farmer like you become and this suggests that the was impeded and migration of people from the south into the north and we know now that these individuals who came you can say down from Anatolia and the Middle East the abroad agriculture with them head you can say a lot of interaction with the southern Europeans but very little with the North European so then in other words they had a lot of sex with the southern Europeans very little with the North Europeans and when they got to Eastern Europe well if they delivered you know the the knowledge but didn't want to have any sex and this is basically why you know you can say North East Europeans I'm a most haunted gallery like in Europe when we go further up in time we get to the so-called Bronze Age period it's between five and two thousand years ago and this is again a period of massive cultural changes both in Europe and in Asia and there's been a lot of discussion about what was what made this transformation was it again was it migration of people was it spread of ideas and and archaeologists have been discussing this for four decades so we decided to undertake what was at the time the largest ancient genome started to date so most genome studies has been one or two ancient genomes this time we decided we wanted to do more than 100 ancient genomes was a massive undertaking and we had to do a lot of methodological improvements to get this to work but we collected Bronze Age samples across Europe into you know Western Asia and all the way into Central Asia close to Mongolia and those paths sequence the genomes and what we can see is well the Bronze Age was indeed a period of very significant movements of people so if you go to early prong say it's 5000 years ago we can see that there's a spread of the so-called Anaya people from Eastern Europe into northwestern Europe here they are meeting you know the farmers the early farmers living in northern Europe also in Scandinavia and they are interacting with them they're intermixing with them at the same time some of these young nya people are crossing the Urals and going all the way into Central Asia and here they seem to mainly be replacing the hunter galleries that were living there like the smelter boy similar to that at least locally and this very early spread into the northwest and into the East it's interesting because linguistics people that are dealing with languages and the developing languages they had predicted some of them have predicted that you had to have such a migration going on from the yam nya with the early spread of the indo-european languages so the indo-european languages is what we speak today and many other people speak today so in other words the M nya people might very well have brought the language with them at least the early version of it that we are speaking today later in the Bronze Age we actually see a migration going from Euro Euler mountains and Europe into Central Asia this time it's the sense hosta culture and this is a warrior culture quickly moving all the way into Central Asia replacing the entire people and then in the end of this Bronze Age in here in Central Asia we start seeing people various cultural groups with of East Asian ancestry getting in there mixing with the syntactic and it's very interesting in the beginning when you look at these people you take one skeleton it's a European another it's an Asian but at which time the Asians are becoming more and more dominant and the Europeans are basically out-breath and today in those areas of the world of Central Asia you see people which is genetically almost complete Asians but with a slight signature of Europeans in them and you know most people thought well this is just the Russians or whatever you know during the Soviet Union getting down there but in fact no it's actually all the way back to the Bronze Age period and what is also interesting is that these events during the Bronze Age has to a large extent shaped the genetic variation the genetic diversity that we see in Europe and Asia today so if you look here all the grey spots represent the genetic diversity we see in Europe today if you look at the late hunter-gatherers you can see the genetic diversity is falling outside present day diversity when you go to the Neolithic farmers it's also falling outside the genetic diversity but then when we get to the Bronze Age the genetic diversity that separates for example southern Europe northern Europe Eastern Europe and so forth I really start getting created and the same for Asia you know in the in the early hunter-gatherers it's falling outside contemporary genetic diversity then we get to the middle Bronze Age with the my expansion it start getting created and then with the syntactic expansion and and the ancients getting in there we really start forming the genetic diversity that we see to take so in other words a lot of the genetic differences that you see among people today in Europe and also in Central Asia is something that happened you know over there only the last few thousand years right it's very late in our history so we can also start looking at phenotypic traits because of we so many samples so for example lactose tolerance lactose tolerance is the ability as adults to break down milk sugar in other words you can take your no raw milk and you can drink it and you're not getting sick this is an ability as at all which is very rare worldwide but very common in Northern Europe some 7080 percent of the population can do this in northern Europe while in other parts of the world if they drink you know raw milk they get sick okay we can of course all do it as children but as adults and so this is genetically based and most people believe well this ability must have come during the farming when the early farmers are getting into Europe because then when people are getting a cow you know and they are starving the people who had to kill the cow and it can maybe survive you know one month people who can milk it and drink the milk instead surviving half a year right and there will be a selection and therefore it will come in but what we can see is that all during that period and also in the Bronze Age this genetic ability is super rare in northern Europe so in other words the this you know ability genetic ability to break down milk sugars atolls is something that first became a pond within the last two thousand years and what we can also see is that most likely it came with the entire people because the Yom nya has a higher frequency than in the Europeans so they might very well when they mixed up you know with the Neolithic farmers the early farmers they have brought this genetic ability and then you know it over the last two thousand years has becoming highly frequent you can also start looking at phenotypic traits so if you look at people you know the late hunter-gatherers in Europe they will probably look pretty much like this guy here very dark-skinned blue gray eyes fairly short its with the Anaya people you're getting people more like this I bloom here with the very pale skin the brown eyes and tall people so this is the Anaya signatures so it's very late again in our history that some of these traits you can say which is we can't see the typical North Europeans are actually coming about so what is creating this extreme dynamics in the Bronx age one group you know replacing the other denier replacing the hunter-gatherers locally at least the Cintas the local Ihram replacing they am not there am nya and so forth so we were speculating about this and first we thought could it be something to do with climatic changes but we couldn't really see any major climatic changes happening through that period and then one of the archaeologists said what about diseases and the only disease we have ever heard about it's really bleak because we are not medical people so we have heard about plague right the Black Death but the problem was of course that the Black Death happened you know 3,000 years later but we decided to go and say well we give it a shot we'll look you know for pestis the bacteria causing the Black Death in some of these skeletal remains and this is one of the rare examples where you can be very lucky in science no obviously you're not but here we were extremely lucky so basically out of our 100 individual aid of individual had the pestis bacteria and we could sequence the whole genome of the pestis bacteria we could sequence the plasmids and we could look at it how does it fit into you can see the file phylogeny of present-day plague and what we can see is that not only has played in widely distributed during the Bronze Age which was by itself a major surprise it's before real cities was established and so forth but we could also see again a notion of how the disease has developed because in early Bronze Age material it's the plague version we find that can only be transmitted from human to human by saliva so you have to be in you can say close contact it's super fatal I think there's hundred percent fatality if you're not treated within 48 hours but most people thought this was the dried form the later form but in fact when we get to the end of the Bronze Age then when we see this is the form that you see in the evil times where the plague bacteria can be transmitted through fleas so it can survive in the flea God and then it can be spread through the fees so it really opens a possibility to study you know disease distribution this is evolution and now of course we're looking at all kinds of pathogens and our samples because obviously they don't only have plague they have all kinds of nasty stuff back then so that you can explore okay I'm not sure how I'm doing on time here but otherwise you just have to stop me but now I want it fine is it getting okay it's getting real close to want to hear about the extinction of the Ice Age fauna yeah okay well this some say yes yeah okay so a so one you know it is very heavily discuss 20 people when did humans start having a really large-scale impact on the environment kind of act you know and a continental scale and one of the early suggestions for this is the extinction of the so-called Ice Age megafauna right so if you go back ten twelve thousand years in time you would see an environment very different from today and what made it very different was that you had a huge diversity of big bodied mammals you had elephants in the form of woolly mammoths you had a woolly rhinoceros you had the Lions you had hyenas something very similar to what you see on the African savannah today literally running around in the snow so but for unknown reasons two-thirds of these animals died out in the end were died out in the end of the last ice age around 1012 thousand years ago and of course this has been a major parcel what caused this extinction and some people have argued well this was humans humans came out of Africa which spread to the rest of the world up north there we met these animals they had never seen humans before and we killed them one by one and it happened really quickly within thousand years of first contact so talk about extinction by Blitzkrieg others have said it's ridiculous to think that a few humans were the primitive or simple technology could take out all these animals it must be due to climatic changes we know that the climate become warmer and more humid in the end of their last ice age and in regarding to these groups they say well that must have taken out the animals the critics here says well how can it be what was so special about this last warming period because these guys have survived many warming periods before without going extinct so we decided to look into this and did what I think is still the largest DNA study looking at the population dynamics of these Ice Age mammals so we collected bones and teeth from Europe Siberian North America sequencing DNA from six of these species three that went extinct and three that survived woolly rhinos were truly mammoth horse reindeer bison and musk ox and to make a long story and then what we also did was we did what is called climate niche reconstruction so when you have the fossil you know I'm here in Siberia I know the age because I've dated it then you can use climate records from some of these areas to basically reconstruct what with the area that this animal have occupied through time how would that have been if it's only driven by climatic changes okay then finally we also looked into the archaeological record finding out how many where has human's been when how many animals they have they consumed and so forth and to make a long story short what we can see is there's a clear correlation between how many animals what we call effective population size how many animals are there through time and climatic changes so it's very little doubt the climate seems to have a major impact on the population dynamics of these animals that's one thing the other thing is that a number of these animals it's very hard to see humans having much impact because they're not overlapping in time and space for example the woolly the the mascots that today is found naturally in Canada and Greenland but back then it was also in Europe and Asia and then it got extinct but at the time of extinction the musk ox is not overlapping within humans they are way too far north you know so it's pretty hard to see how humans could have impact so in other words the data here really suggests that climate is a major driver of these changes some cases humans may have locally been important for taking some of these animal groups out but as the main driver it seems to be the climate so what we decided to do then was to basically find out what about the climate is causing the extinction could it be through the vegetation and what we did was we collected more than 200 permafrost samples across this is North America this is Siberia and into Europe and basically taking DNA out of those samples and reconstructing the vegetation history over the last 50 thousand years and what we then also did was we got access to some of these mummies of woolly mammoth woolly rhinoceros you know sometimes in Siberia you find them frozen right with misses and everything on and skin lying in the frozen ground so we got access to the stomach content of these individuals and then we took samples of the stomach consent that we sequenced to find out what were they eating so what can we see well first of all what we can see is that if you go back fifty thirty thousand years ago the diversity of plants in this area in the northern hemisphere was much larger and today and it was dominated by forms then when we get around 20,000 years ago what is called the last glacial maximum the coldest and dry stage of the last ice age there we see a major drop in the diversity but it's still dominated by these forms and then we get into the Hardison the our next warming period some ten eleven thousand years ago and maybe one would expect I thought anyways well then we would just return to the previous vegetation when it was warm but no then we see a complete different vegetation a very massive vegetation change so what does this tell us well it tells us that even if you're returning to the same climate it doesn't necessarily mean that the vegetation will follow and this of course is important in these days when we talk about global warming so even if you get the global warming on the control and the and the vegetation has changed right it doesn't mean that you're returning to some you knew before and it also tells you that when these critics of the climate theory said well what was so special about the last warming period they have survived many warming periods before well that might be true but the vegetation from some of those warming periods might very well have been different right so it's actually through the vegetation that they it's happening and then when we looked at the stomach content what we could see was that the dominant source of food for these guys were were these forbs these nutrient-rich forms so and these got their nutrients forbs are really declining you know in the Holocene I mean the last 10 to 12 thousand years so of course a very you can say straightforward interpretation of this data would be well the climate is changing the vegetation and the vegetation is really change is really what causing you know some of these animals to collapse and then finally because now I can see the Chairman he is really getting he wants to get this over with I can see that but you know just finally I will say how far back in time can we go with all this well we still have the record we sequence the genome of a seven hundred thousand year old horse from up from Alaska and the such a old horse you can use it for many things but one thing you can use it for is actually was a really important you can say issue in conservation biology namely is that do this still exist any true white horses so all the horses we see today you know in Sweden and Australia America most parts of Asia and so forth it's really even if they're white horses it's actually domestic horses that have gone white so the only candidate for true white horse that has always been wild is the so called pest Val ski horse from Mongolia but that was on the brink of extinction in the 1940s there was like 12 individuals left or something like that and of course those pests bielski horses has been surrounded by domestic horses for thousands of years so the question was is there any true blooded Sukie horses left i mean that we can put some conservation efforts into and the problem was you know you didn't you don't know what i mean beside the pesky horse you don't know what should a white horse genome look like because there is no other white horse right but of course our 700,000 your horse i can guarantee you it has been wild and so you could actually use it right to in fear well is there actually full-blooded personal ski yes and there was in fact some individuals and that's of course where we should put the conservation so finally I'll just say thank you very much and sorry it took me a little bit longer than planned and then I would say of course this work has been done by a number of young researchers in my group and I just want to show you the faces of the people put in all the words thank you very much so thank you very much ask if it is absolutely fascinating liquor before we start with questions and things I would like to introduce a bar fisher from who is the chairman of the crawford foundation first soviet a kadai for to complete the way yet to spend on the listener octave throat are unique on the air somehow are it many for something masculine or do you make you director some be horribly Inspira another oh not even scope of wash clean okay hit the target look yeah to cure the shins extra cue ethnicity is to wrassle an odorous actresses on door sorry none so at wash can't burn it did he look so or accumulate student accuse her come on have a little the ABF lira was books now the whole Tilbury ami de pluim today escape magnetic yeah hey Adam how even an anime central on OC consistently doan breast arena not Kafka sisters and RB are not an attractive portioning the whole Nursia Nastya that stupid drug till at food to perfect some for killers and on the lam man for myself and Youkilis meseta her from her man and a litera come here at the Albert V King soma photograph of Oscar he had learned some hostility texture to my to your photograph here at many foreign HollyRod an chenda into agenda or some Jobim many for some yoga my man's career theatre on dearest romário octan her the hyper fact that tunnel it mean Italian food to its turning some fiends before to your office guy stuck on ok goofy on my bill the now okay si Italia Alison's hit to her at a mush so common Heights turning until loons constant okay come back near a common area at Cosi hidden door so go fast at NYADA and angong still track yeah Hockman Bangkok tok-san makea bump so we continue in English it'll be little bit easier for 4sq to understand your questions when I have roughly 15 minutes or so I think for your questions so suppose you you have a few so just raise your hand if you want to ask your question the first yeah there is a brave person far down there so is it possible to make coke be a fair Mehmet in the future and how much of the a DNA from a Mehmet are already found ok yeah very good question to you all here ok no ok but they she's basically asked you know is it possible to you know make the genome of the mammoths and how much has already been done and I guess also what it you imply in your question is whether it's possible to recreate right the mammoths and so that the math the genome of the mammoths has basically already been sequenced I mean to the extent it's possible even from a living person or animal you cannot sequence the entire genome there will be regions that because of structure or repetitions and cetera is very hard to sequence but the amount that can be sequenced is already sequenced I mean in terms of you can say recreating the mammoth it's not really my area it's kind of a different field but but I think that it's probably possible to introduce you know some of the mutations or substitution if you want that is found the differences let's say between a mammoth and a living elephant some of those genetic changes you could in principle I think introduce into you know a fertilized egg off of an Indian elephant and therefore you know potentially get something out that you know carries mammoth features if you want it's not a mammoth but I mean but but has made may be mammoth features I mean it's at the moment to the best of my understanding it's not possible to you can say clone a extinct animal and one of the reasons is that even you know when things are very well preserved like in permafrost for example the DNA is still heavily degraded I mean it's still very fragmented destroyed and I think in order to be successful here you would have something very something very close to a complete nucleus I mean to make that happen so way so you know it might happen with time but I don't think it's it's happening you know tomorrow all right [Applause] and if you prefer if you prefer asking questions in Swedish it's okay I think I will understand most of it as long as I can answer in English yep so Swedish English or Dana yeah just pick the language you like so are there any other questions I'm sure we've prepared questions don't be right there's one day on a p.m. you said when you analyze the DNA of people living in Asia you came to the conclusion that they're genetically related to Asians and slightly European what's the sample size that he used to come to that conclusion well it's only of course the sample size in it you're talking about the multi individual right the the 23,000 old individual from Siberia I guess is that true all that correct yeah yeah I mean there it's it's only a single individual we have now found other examples of it elsewhere but so it's it's pretty simple you can see how you you do it right you are comparing the DNA and saying if you compare that the you know the whole genome of what we have off the genome and say how much does every sample you know different populations or different groups of people around the world right and then you can see it has a very close affinity to these North Europeans and even closer to Native Americans and less so to in-station populations okay think we're one up here when and why did you decide to become a scientist what sorry when when and why did you decide to become a science Oh a scientist okay yeah well well that's something that came to me a fairly late life so I have a you can say I have a past actually of being an adventurous and fur trapper in Siberia quite different and then so after you know I returned from fur trapping in in 93 94 then you know I had already started on the biology study you know at university part of course I had had many breaks because I was travelling instead but then I got very tired of freezing and eating bad food like that so I decided to basically make and you can say make another living so I I didn't think I would be a scientist but at least I decided to complete my study so that I completed my my story and then when I got to the final project the master project which is in Denmark one year you know I did DNA I retrieve DNA from ice cores and then I got so you can see so interested in it I mean it was I mean what you you have to bear in mind here it's sometimes reading about what other people do is pretty boring I think it is this pretty boring right and it's also pretty boring doing experiments where you know you know thousands of students have done it before you you know and you know exactly what the outcome will be right that's I mean it can be useful but it's pretty boring but doing new discoveries doing something people haven't done before it's amazing I mean it's just amazing and and to be honest you know it was also amazing you know traveling around in Siberia and you know it was really wild and unexplored and all this but it's nothing compared to the feeling you get when you are discovering something new it's it's it's like it rock I mean it's amazing you know think about you are the the person in the world that just know this that has discovered this have changed people's view on something and it's a very you can say also the process itself is is it's very hard sometimes but it's extreme satisfaction satisfaction when you are kidding you know when you are finally getting there so I have never in my life when I did my master and did this project where you can see where nobody had done it before on a nice I'd never tried anything so wonderful in my entire life and then I became a scientist so yeah [Applause] yep so you know in 20 years time you will be asked the same question yeah we've got question of them for the future of your scientific field what are you most excited about what are the possibilities I think I mean to be honest I think there's a lot of possibilities and you know I think that the field has a great potential to look for example at how can it be some people are getting things like diabetes type 2 some groups around the world while others are not I think that there's a chance to understand you can see how did we domesticate plants animals how did diseases involve I mean it's just an endless amount of possibilities and this is the beauty right I mean it's a matter of of choosing rather than you know you you are forced to go in a certain direction because there's nothing else new to do I mean there's so many possibilities I mean both with the sedimentary DNA where you can really construct these I mean one of the things for example we're interested in in the moment is to look at rice domestication taking course and then basically retrieving the DNA of rice through time right and then you can get all the you can say all the substitutions all the genetic changes through time some of them might even have been lost in present-day rice and could be important and because it's a plant right you can actually modified rice and then create if you want the samurai sushi or whatever you want and you know see I mean basically get genetic traits that potentially could even be important today you could you could discover from the past and this is just one of many possibilities so it's very hard to say I mean I'm this is always the problem choosing between the many many possible possibilities really but yeah [Laughter] [Applause] so we have time for a villa we've got one over there yeah I don't know if this is a stupid question or not by a oh I if I understood correctly you could take an old man with DNA and recreate some a new animal with some man with features right I don't think anybody I've done it's all with maybe also for ethical reasons out in the whole pod but I think in principle it could be possible yeah yeah I just wondered if I would happen if you could take an old human and doing the same thing well I guess that's possible but probably even more ethical problematic I mean if you recreated something Neandertal like I mean you wouldn't know we should you put this individual and so logical garden or should invite him over for coffee I mean it's I'm not sure we'll get there hopefully not I think for ethical reasons so we've got time for say one more question hi from what I understood is that Siberians are more related to Native Americans then Asians is that correct yeah I mean then yes that's correct so they are more let's say they're more closely related to northeastern Siberians are more closely related to Native Americans then are for example Han Chinese or other agents yes this is correct how long did this study research take from the moment you got the idea I mean yeah it's a good question so it's a it's been asked how long time does it take to do these research projects and it varies a lot I mean some projects have taken a year but there's other projects that have taken maybe four or five years to conduct so it varies a lot you can say based on the scale of the project right so the first ancient human genome we did in one year we did we'll also did nothing else and we were you know a number of people working very hard to get it done but and then you know you have a story like the Bronx eight story where we sequence 200 individuals that took a couple of years but then there's the permafrost story you know where we took these samples across the northern hemisphere I mean they're basically I started collecting the samples in 2003 right and the paper came out I think in 2015 or 14 or something like that but it was every time I went on an expedition I had a drill and the freeze of it you know in the northern hemisphere and then sating these core samples right because I had this plan you know about doing something like that you know in the end so I just started very early on so it varies a lot but at least you can say it's something you can see if you start also as a student or you know a student or a young researcher and you're getting involved I mean you will see it to the end from the beginning to the end so you get you know this this feeling of actually have completed a story and a must really recommend you I mean I hope also I don't know if there's teachers here today but I mean one thing you should really try I think out there in the high schools is to try to do I know it's not so easy but try to do new experiments I mean experiments which are different from what you read in the book I don't know whether you're doing this today but when I was a student you didn't do that right it was like you know every time doing the same thing and you could just take you know the report from the previous year and you could see the result and it's super boring but I mean doing something you I mean I'm sure there number of you will be just like amazed about you know and and the thing is in Natural Science this is the beauty right natural science compared to humanities you can actually get you can see something very clear something new right it's not like oh yeah on one side on the other side and blah blah I mean you have a very clear result and it's actually really easy to do something new there's so much to be discovered also with very simple experiments it's a wonderful feeling so I would really recommend it thank you very much yes here time flies you will have chance to talk to SK in about 20 minutes in person over a cup of coffee if you like but before that I'd like to introduce a panel over three biologists from lund university so please [Applause] so we have Murray ducky some of you may have seen on TV we have aa nordian who is a PhD student at the department and we have to be us owner so these are some of our most prominent young Gish people they were young the idea now is that they have actually prepared a few questions and things to ask in so I think you can run a discussion with their skill on your own thank you well first of all we would like to say what a fantastic lecture thank you but not only that I also need to say what a fantastic audience for science because it is fantastic Aska can I ask you because you said towards the end of your talk here you said that now you can take you can go back 700,000 years in time will this be the same in ten years do you think is this like a because the DNA can't last longer or is just a new technique no I know I I think it will there's still some development to gain in terms of you can say retrieving DNA which are very very degraded I mean of course if it's all into single nucleotides you know if his base pairs it will be pretty hard right but I mean at the moment you can say you need a certain for example you need a certain size in order to map those pieces uniquely to a reference genome right so what you do is you're you're basically taking the small pieces out and then you are comparing it to an existing genome so for the humans you know there's a reference genome for example and then you're basically saying okay where's this part fitting and it's quite amazing that with 35 base pairs I mean 35 of these littles you can map something I think it's like 70 60 or 70 percent of the genome uniquely right which is really good but of course if you could go beyond that fragment length I mean let's say go down to you know 20 base pairs you know that would really enable you to retrieve genomes out of our far science that are very degraded or very old because the relationship between the copy number that the number of copies and the fragment size in such ancient remains it's an exponential function so it means a lot whether you're just kidding you know let's say 10 base pairs shorter right it really has a huge impact so but the problem is you cannot map it uniquely so somehow you have to look I mean at the frequencies let's say in in a population and they use that to say something about the probability of it fitting one place or one order for example right but I think that would gain a lot for example then of course there's also a in terms of the chemistry itself I mean you can you can really of course change that and modeling that to be better more efficient in getting the DNA out so those ways for improvement still yeah so mapping things to a reference genome that's basically what you do so I'm thinking about this environmental DNA that you look at what if you and retrieve them are mental DNA and then you found that there's a lot of things woolly mammoth and your musk ox and stuff but what if you find something that you can't Mac - yes but then we can't identify it so it's all it's all being really relying on having reference DNA data to compare it to so so obviously you're getting DNA out of something you don't know what was down there right so where you have to somehow you know rely on it being present in the database so there's huge databases that are also growing exponentially in numbers right where you have all the DNA that people have been sequencing over time and so in some cases for example with mammals you know a lot has been sequenced right and you have a very good opportunity to map some of these things but for example with certain plants or insects there are what happens is that you get a match but it's not really good match and that of course either you can say well it's I can only say it's this family of plant for example or insects right you get a good support for that it's within that family but you can't say what species we're talking about and sometimes even with mammals this happens so I remember for the first paper we caught out so mitochondrial DNA which looked definitely like a musk ox but not really a hundred percent of musk ox and that's probably some of the extinct musk ox forms that we know where we're living in these areas what but hadn't been sequenced right so isn't that very frustrating for someone who wants to discover new things of course it's frustrating not to be able to say what it is but on the other hand I mean those databases are growing so rapidly that what we could I mean when I started right I mean it there it was a real challenge I mean with a lot of of of of the identifications but now I mean the growing some have been growing so rapidly that it's just becoming better and better and this is this also means that you can take the data you know after a few years and then you can actually reanalyze it and get even more information which is also nice and beautiful I think can I ask you a little bit about human evolution yeah so we we for a long time we heard that humans have stopped evolving yeah on the other hand we're now seeing with the sequence data that there's evidence for strong selection in not just in with respect to lactose tolerance but other things as well what's your take on this well III don't think we have stopped evolving I mean also just from the simple you can say rational that I mean it might be you can see in our part of the world right that people are not dying from diseases and stuff I mean but there's certainly other places in the world where this is happening and where you could imagine you can see a selection going on right choice you know what you prevent as certain disease or whatever so I don't think I've heard this before that people say now we only culturally evolving right but there's no biological involvement we're not biological involving but I I don't think this is the case the other thing is that because of the globalization we are seeing of course I mean people are mating with each other in their I mean even at the bronze age it was people were made long distances we can see this but now of course this is even it you can see the possibilities I endless are finding new partners around the world and that also means you will get a lot of new recombination and stuff that will create new diversity and so forth so no I don't think so if you're looking back in the history and the time that time that you have worked on there any particular points in time that you think have been particularly important in human evolution I think that I think there's little doubt that you can say from the time of the early farmers and we will see you up today we haven't been we don't know the whole story yet but you know the the change from hunter-gathering to farming and the Bronze Age there's no doubt that that has been extremely important periods in terms of creating you can say the distribution and the genetic diversity that we see in in people today and it has been you know many archaeologists of you can say my generation and the previous generation was really of the belief that people were not moving very much right I mean that it all all the cultural changes happen through spread of ideas but people were staying put and I would say one lesson we have learned from these stories is that people very early on moved great distances right and and you can say the whole idea of people just staying in a local area and and looking around and saying well I have never been outside you know my local area it's probably a phenomena that has been introduced much later in our history but when you go back I mean we also did the strontium and one of the Bronze Age women from Denmark called the ecwid woman which is a very famous mommy so we could use the strontium to say how has he moved over her lifetime through the air right and she was probably born in Germany came to Denmark went all the way to southern Germany and went back to Denmark again and died right so it's it's over long distances these individuals has been moving and they probably knew more about the world than we think and also early on you know with the spread we're also doing a lot of work in Australia but I didn't have time to cover that but you know some of this early spread of people after we left Africa you know you have an amazing spread of people the ancestors of Aboriginal Australians and pop one's covering huge distances right getting even crossing ocean you know 50,000 years ago or more you know to get into you know Papua and and Australia so I mean the cap I mean one thing we have learned I think is the colour the space that people have covered them the many times people have met each other and intermixed so the whole idea of races and stuff I mean I think is completely outdated and then you know and also people's abilities I mean we always looked at these kinds of early humans as being really simple and primitive and sitting you're banging in a stone right and they don't understanding much of the world and I think this is completely wrong I mean these people were really capable of a lot of what we are capable of today I have a question about mixing and because you talk a lot in your talk about something dying off or something being replaced but can it also be that that like the nonlethals for example maybe they didn't die off maybe they mixed and then they actually just continued definitely I mean I think for most groups probably this is the case I mean you can say they're dying out as a group but there's signatures of the genetic material still surviving in us I mean another example this mother boy we found you know the half Native American half Northern European like individual living in around Lake Baikal right I mean to the best of our knowledge this group of people doesn't exist anymore I mean you don't have anybody you can say with with that genome if you want or very close to that genome surviving but fragments of that genome has survived in various populations around the world right so I think this is a this is basically in the case and we are all I mean I think this is an important at least in Denmark these years where I mean compared to Sweden there's a lot of anti migration and stuff like that it's an important message that people have been you know we have been formed by migration and at mixtures it's just how it is right it has formed our genetics it has formed our culture and you know sometimes I'm even called in to political parties you know to give some background right because most Danes for example person I think has the notion you know that we came from the Stone Age man you know all the way up to present day and then first in the 60s something happened right but of course these results here shows no I mean we are a product in Europe as well as other parts of the world of migration and mixing of people's and this is also what has created a lot of our culture our language and so forth so to ask about some of the best friends the dogs yeah so it's not really humorous they have done ancient DNA studies on but also the dogs have been fairly heavily studied and if I'm not drunk there recently shown that dogs don't only have one origin but actually two so they come from two lines how can they I mean how do you say that why is it not three could it be three if we could go even further back and why do you say it's two well I'm not saying that because I don't believe in it I actually believe that you cannot say it because it's very complicated with the dogs I mean I would say there's even some results now I think suggesting that where at least one of the domestication is happening from a and wolf a group of wolves that is no longer around I mean there's no descendants from that right and so it's the domestication process and the number of domestication it can be extremely hard because to deal with especially just from contemporary DNA from living dogs because there's been so much breathing and there's been so you can say the same is the case with horses so at the center we have a person Ludovico lento who is working a lot with the horse domestication and the whole bloody variation has been lost right in contemporary horses and it's probably the same with dogs I mean so it's first when you go back in time you can actually really see in details right what's going on so you need to but you need to do a lot of sampling I mean so get air and notion of what is going on there right because if you you know if you build the three years you know right I mean and you're missing certain parts you know the the branches we'll just swap in right instead it should have been you out here and so forth so it's a very difficult question I think this about the number of domestication event yes I think so and I think like any other field you can say which is very young there are you know what people will we will find out and we're already starting finding out of course that the history is very complex right so when we started with one genome you know we were sitting there you know in fearing the history from you know one genome and then people came here and then they came there and was really first with the Bronx started where we did 100 genomes we could see you know there's a lot of variation within for example Europe right I mean there's a lot of differences and so you can say you can't just from I think you have to be very careful from a single genome from a single locality really inferring that but it also depends on where you are in time so you can say at the moment if you go back to the early hunter galleries or even the late hunter-gatherers you know the genomes that has been done and more and more genomes being done actually suggest something very similar I mean very little structure there's some but it's very little right and then you get up to the Bronze Age and you see massive structure so there you really need a large sample size to do these inferences right but of course it's like with any other field that you just you can say you have to of course be careful what you're doing and what how you're interpreting but it's also a learning it's a learning experiment so in other is another important take-home message in science you have to make mistakes to become wiser it's just how it is right if you got it all right from the beginning well then you could close your computer and go home right there's nothing to do so this is part of the process I mean becoming clever more clever on the world is actually to make mistakes [Applause] - dango or elderlies yeah okay this can lead to get at it for me you learning shanks across time at the SK oak may vote for Kappa L so you take the Berea meld oh yeah more force kappa neol environment lord oh say nothing it is an allele is self silver arm up load till a schism heard a lot seen on to see a smashing thank you so much for your time thank you [Applause]
