Thanks to Brilliant for supporting this episode
of SciShow. Go to Brilliant.org/SciShow to learn more. [ INTRO ] Imagine you made yourself a cup of tea, stirred
it, left it for five minutes… and came back to see that it was still spinning. Now, imagine you picked up that cup, and the
tea fell straight through the bottom… while also starting to climb up the sides
of the cup and flow out the top. It may sound impossible, but if your cup was
full of helium cooled to about -270°C, that’s exactly what you’d see. Because at that temperature, helium becomes
a weird substance known as a superfluid. It’s part of a bizarre world of ultracold
phenomena that have won theoretical and experimental physicists alike several Nobel Prizes. And it might even hold the key to understanding
the nature of spacetime itself. To understand how superfluids work, it helps
to know a little about how particles behave. Thanks to quantum mechanics, things like atoms
and molecules can’t have just any old amount of energy . Instead, their energy comes in discrete
levels. In other words, an atom or molecule can jump
between different energy levels, but it can’t ever be in between those levels. This is true for any molecule, but in everyday
life, you don’t actually notice. There are just so many randomly-moving particles
out there that other effects outweigh the quantum ones. But when you cool things down, the situation
starts to get a bit strange -- especially when it comes to helium. At low temperatures, most things just freeze
and become boring blocks of ice. But helium is unique among the elements in
that it basically never freezes. At atmospheric pressure, it remains a liquid
pretty much all the way to absolute zero, which is -273.15°C -- also called zero Kelvin. But things get weird even before you hit that
point. When you get to the -270° range, or just
above 2 Kelvin, it’s like liquid helium totally forgets how matter is supposed to
work. This happens because the atoms are falling
into lower and lower energy states as they cool down. And as liquid helium gets cold, more of the
atoms fall into the same low-energy state. This is when the weirdness really starts. Because the rules of quantum mechanics mean
that when the atoms are on the same energy level, they start to behave in unison. They literally become mathematically indistinguishable,
and all behave the same way. So they don’t bump into each other or even
move in different directions like a regular liquid. Instead, all that is replaced with the perfectly
coordinated unison of a superfluid. Because they’re all moving together, there
are no atoms bumping into and sliding off one another, which means there is zero friction
between them. Start stirring them, and they’ll basically
never stop spinning. The liquid can also slip past anything: itself,
the walls of its container -- even microscopic cracks in the bottom of the
beaker it’s in. And if you don’t have a perfectly tight
lid on your container, the helium will straight-up go rogue. All liquids tend to climb up the walls of
the container they’re in, but usually, the friction between the walls and the liquid
are enough to counter the effect. That is not true with superfluids: They will get pushed right up the walls and
over the top of the container. This can happen even with the septillion atoms
in a beaker on a lab bench -- which is inconvenient, but also amazing, because
it’s a purely quantum phenomenon you can see with your eyes. Now, to be totally clear, these effects don’t
work with just any helium atom. It specifically needs to be helium-4. Helium-4 has two protons, two electrons, and
two neutrons. And that configuration means the atom behaves
like a type of particle called a boson, which is known for its ability to occupy the
same energy level as its neighbors. Only these kinds of atoms can slip into that
low-energy state together and become a superfluid. Helium-3, which has one fewer neutron, can’t
do that, because on a quantum level, that missing neutron means it behaves differently. Well, for the most part. It turns out that helium-3 atoms can sort
of “team up” in pairs called Cooper pairs. And those can behave like a boson, meaning
they can condense just like atoms of helium-4. This means you can make a superfluid out of
them. But the helium-3 and helium-4 superfluids
behave differently. To get helium-3 to work, you have to cool
it down to less than 3 millikelvin. Yes, less than three thousandths of a degree
above absolute zero. By contrast, helium-4 only needs to go down
to 2.1 Kelvin. Which sure is warmer, although, y’know,
still colder than most of deep space. and to make things more complicated, helium-3
is only 0.0001% of all the helium found in nature. Most of the stuff around today comes from
nuclear reactors. So making any superfluid is hard, but making
one from helium-3 that is worthy of a Nobel Prize or two! Even though they’re weird and amazing, superfluids
are more than just an interesting quantum quirk. Research suggests that superfluids might make
up the cores of neutron stars, which are tiny, dense objects in space made almost entirely
of neutrons. Superfluidity is also closely related to other
weird quantum effects, like superconductivity, where electricity can flow through wires with
zero resistance. If we could control superconductors better,
we could make batteries that never degrade, better quantum computers, lots of other useful
things. There’s even an idea out there that spacetime
itself might be a superfluid, which may help in the long quest for a theory
of everything. This is a theory that would explain both very
large and very small systems, and scientists have been searching for it for years. This just goes to show that sometimes in physics,
messing around with some equations on a chalkboard, or messing around with some chemicals on a
lab bench, can lead to discoveries that can change the world. All of these discoveries started with one
big idea and one basic step, whether it was learning more about physics or getting better
at problem-solving. And if you’re looking for a next step of
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