In the year 717 AD, the Byzantine
Empire was on the verge of collapse. Arab conquests devoured their lands and
now a massive Umayyad force, 20 years in the making, was bearing down upon
Constantinople itself with over 100,000 men and nearly 5,000 ships. Defending the city were a
meager 15,000 soldiers of the Empire. However in their darkest hour, they would be saved by secret
super-weapons of the Byzantines. At the critical hour dragons emerged to bathe the invaders in
streams of hellfire. These were the Fire Ships which would protect the city for centuries
to come and change the course of history. While fire has long held a reputation as a
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to get a one point free trial enjoy Fire has been man’s greatest ally and his
greatest enemy since long before written record. From the warm light of the hearth and the deadly
roar of the forest fire our species learned very quickly not to drift too closely to the flames.
And from that fear and respect came low cunning. In the age of close packed wooden cities,
thatched roofs, great granaries, and vast fields, fire became a potent weapon. Such was its
reputation that it became synonymous with unrestrained violence. For many militaries this
was a selling point in and of itself. However there was always a desire to exert some control
over this most destructive force of nature. It is in this search that early man turned to his
environment. Here, natural products such as pitch, oil, resin, and animal fat proved ideal
for the creation of incendiary payloads. Some of our earliest records of this come
from Assyria where 9th century BC reliefs can be seen depicting the use of fire arrows and
exploding pots. Over the years, this technology would undergo further research and development
by the various civilizations of the age. Much of this activity is unfortunately lost to us and
we are only left with a few contemporary accounts testifying to its details. In India for instance,
the Arthashastra documents the advancements being made to fire weapon technology and tactics at the
time while the Laws of Manu further reveal how prohibitions were put in place to attempt to limit
their devastation. It's a fascinating glimpse into the ripple effects of the ongoing evolutionary
arms race taking place across the world. Our story today, though, will be focused around
the specific developments of the eastern Mediterranean and Near-East. The two regions had
long been intertwined economically, politically, and militarily with various incendiary
technologies being advanced within this ecosystem. One example was the Boeotian flamethrower
deployed in 434 BC against an Athenian garrison during the Peloponnesian War. The device featured
a tube through which air could be forced into a pot of burning charcoal, pitch, and sulfur
which in turn would erupt outwards towards a target. It proved successful in clearing the
walls and was added to the growing list of tools attackers might bring to bear in their sieges.
Over the centuries, yet more innovations would slowly emerge. One of the most popular among these
was the use of naphtha weaponry. This was the rather broad name for petroleum-derived mixtures
which proved both highly flammable and portable, a potent combination. The Parthian and later
Sassanid empires were particularly successful in pioneering its applications when it came to siege
warfare. Soon the Greeks and Romans too began toying with their own mixtures. This would
ultimately lead to a pivotal breakthrough. In the early 7th century AD, the Islamic Caliphate
was sweeping across the land and threatening to overrun the eastern Byzantine provinces.
Among the refugees who fled in their path was a man by the name of Kallinikos from the
Syrian city of Heliopolis. Sources claim he brought with him a new incendiary recipe known
simply as “Greek Fire.” To this day, its contents remain a mystery. Part of the confusion comes
from the fact that ancient observers seem to use the label as a catch-all term for various
combustible materials which were used in that era. On top of this we have to consider that the
Byzantines were very secretive when it came to revealing any specifics of their new super
weapon. That being said, researchers tend to believe that the core components of Greek Fire
were likely Naphtha, Quicklime, and Sulphur. Naphtha is a mixture of crude oil and
other fossil fuels such as peat or coal. Quicklime is a white powder refined from limestone
or seashells in a ‘lime kiln.’ And Sulphur, also known as brimstone, is a
naturally occurring substance known for its acrid stench and flammability. Other
likely components are resin, wax, and saltpeter. But how they were mixed, and in what
quantities, is the subject of ongoing debate. The Byzantines would have spent some time
testing and further refining the new Greek Fire. This would have encompassed not just the
ingredients but also its mode of production and delivery. The first trials likely involved the use
of hand thrown grenades made from ceramic pottery, several of which have been found by
archaeologists. Such weapons would have been fairly straightforward to implement as the
Sassanids had previously pioneered their use with Naphtha. The upgrade to Greek Fire simply meant
a more powerful and longer lasting explosion. The next trials aimed to further
exploit its destructive potential by increasing the volume of incendiary
payload. The end result was apparently the creation of a siphon device capable
of spewing fire as if it were a dragon. Here is an evocative, first hand account
recorded by a crusader who faced suce a weapon: “This Greek fire was such that seen from the front
as it darted towards us it appeared as large as a barrel of verjuice, and the tail of fire that
streamed behind it was as long as the shaft of a great lance. The noise it made in coming was
like that of a thunderbolt falling from the skies; it seemed like a dragon flying through the air.
The light which this huge, flaming mass shed all around it was so bright that you could see right
through the camp as clearly as if it were day.”
Now let us take a closer look at the
inner workings of this equipment. The way it worked was that a large bronze
container was built to hold the Greek Fire mixture. This in turn was heated from below
by a flame fanned by a bellow. The purpose was not to ignite the material but to pre-heat
it and thus lower its viscosity for better flow. Once the desired temperature has been reached
an inlet pipe could be pumped with air to pressurize the chamber. The device could
then be “fired” by opening an outlet valve. The heated, pressurized liquid would then race
through pipes and out of the nozzle. Here some sources claim it was lit by a pilot flame which
ignited the stream, bathing the target in a firehose of flames which set everything including
water ablaze and could not be extinguished. Reports claim such siphons could propel the
liquid around 100 ft while the swivel mounted head allowed for around a 60 degree firing arc in all
directions. It was truly a weapon of devastation Operating this system would be a 2 or 3
man crew. Trained siphoneers would actuate the heating bellows, the pressurizing
pump, the release valve and the swivel. Presumably the signal to shoot
would be granted to an officer who, for the first time in history, would have
had reason to use the command word “fire”. Once the device had been constructed and tested on
land it would then be transferred onto a warship. Typically these large Greek Fire siphons were
mounted to the prow of a Byzantine dromon. Here it might be shielded and placed atop
a tower for better range and protection. Sources later indicate that devices might also
be mounted along the aft and sides of a ship for even greater firepower. A fully equipped
vessel would be virtually unassailable. Now let us consider their tactics in battle. For context it must be pointed out that
warships of the Mediterranean during this period were still galleys which resembled
their forebears from antiquity. Some changes worth mentioning though
include new methods of hull construction, the gradual adoption of lanteen sails, and
the abandonment of water level rams in favor of upward turned spurs. This in turn coincided
with a gradual shift in the nature of warfare at sea. Gone were the days of massed naval battles
which had been seen during the Greco-Persian Wars, the Punic Wars, and the Roman Civil Wars. Even
in antiquity such clashes were rare and combat more often revolved around raiding and anti-piracy
activities. When ships did engage though battles were typically fought at close quarters.
Generally this involved smaller ships using their speed to circle about their foes, shooting
them to pieces and shearing off their oars while larger ships sought to grapple with the enemy
and overwhelm them through boarding action. The Byzantines used a variety of tactics depending
on whom they were fighting and what ships they had on hand. The introduction of fire ships simplified
things. They were by far the most effective tools at an admiral’s disposal and he would do well
to make them the center of his battle plan. In doing so two basic facts had to be considered.
The first is that Fire Ships were often slow owing to the heavy nature of their armament and
their preference for smooth sailing conditions. The second fact is that Fire Ships had
a short range, typically aimed towards the front and were only capable of hitting
targets within a ship’s length from them. Taken together, these two principles
dictated that Fire Ships were best used by forcing the enemy to meet the
Byzantines head on at close quarters. This might be achieved by using terrain to
funnel the enemy into the maws of the fire ships or alternatively by arranging one’s fleet in
a compact battle order which could only be assailed from a limited direction. All who
dared to approach would be met with a wall of fire. Here is how Emperor Leo the 4th
explains this principle in his Taktika: quote “You will form the front in a straight line so
that, when necessary, you may fall upon the enemy with your prow first. Then, with the fire from
the siphons, you can set their ships ablaze." Understandably this would have been an
absolutely devastating tactic on both a physical and psychological level. Those not immediately
engulfed in unquenchable flame would turn and run rather than face such horror. In fact Greek
fire proved so widely feared that the Second Lateran Council in 1139 AD would eventually
decree that it was ‘too murderous a weapon’ to be used in Europe. But such arms limitations,
even if they had any teeth, were too little too late. For now the devastation of Greek Fire would
be unleashed by the Byzantines upon their foes and turn the tides of history. Let us explore
the service history of the Fire Ships. This would begin shortly after the delivery
of Greek Fire to the court of the Byzantines around 672 AD. At the time, the Empire had been
weakened by internal strife and long wars with the Sassanids which left them ill prepared to repel
the advances of the Muslim conquests. The invaders quickly seized the former Sassanid Lands and began
to expand into the domains of the Byzantines. This gave them access to many ports, ships, sailors,
and resources with which to now take the offensive to the seas. Arabian fleets now struck across
Asia Minor and the Greek isles, seizing Cyprus and raiding as far as Sicily. When Emperor Constans
the second sailed out to meet them, he would be crushed at the Battle of the Masts in 654 AD. This
catastrophe opened the floodgates for further Arab expansion across the Mediterranean. The invaders
were only temporarily slowed by civil war and returned two decades later to launch a concerted
campaign aimed at taking Constantinople itself. In preparation for this offensive, the Umayyad
Caliphate had meticulously secured bases along Asia minor from which to establish
a blockade of the Byzantine capital. The stranglehold was tightened each spring as
Arab forces hammered away at the troops and fortifications of Constantinople. This relentless
attrition went on for over 5 years, keeping the Byzantines pinned in place while the rest of their
Empire was devoured by foes on all sides. All hope seemed lost. Yet Emperor Constantine the 4th had
one final trick of his sleeve; Greek Fire. It had been gifted to him by Kallinikos just before
the siege began and ever since his best engineers had madly been working on their secret
weapons program. Finally they were ready. In 677 AD, the Byzantine fleet, newly
outfitted with the Greek Fire Siphons, sailed out to meet the Arabs. The invaders were
overjoyed to finally have an opportunity to deal a decisive blow to the defenders
and charged out to meet them. This was a fatal error. As they approached,
gleaming dragon heads were uncovered from the prows of the Byzantine vessels and
proceeded to unleash hellfire upon them. To the utter horror of the arab sailors, entire
ships and the water itself went up in flame. None could escape its grasp and all efforts to
fight it failed. Some chroniclers report that the Umayyad admiral himself was killed with his
entire fleet falling into a panicked retreat. Constantinople had been saved. Victories on land
shortly thereafter halted the Umayyad advance and a 30 year truce was signed. The temporary
lull allowed the Byzantine to catch their breath with Justinian the second taking
particular care to strengthen the navy. Undoubtedly this would have meant
further investment in the fire ships. The Umayyads too had kept busy. Their newly
rebuilt navy focused on the western Mediterranean, assisting in the gradual conquest of North
Africa and Iberia. However the ultimate prize still remained Constantinople and a
second, massive attack was soon prepared. They were at their strongest levels, while the
Byzantine Empire, torn apart by civil, was at its lowest. For instance while Umayyads methodically
advanced across Anatolia, Emperor Anastasios was usurped by Theodosius when the entire navy
defected only to then have his brief reign cut short by Leo the Third. Such infighting made the
Umayyad conquest of Anatolia all the more easy and soon they arrived at the gates of Constantinople
with an army said to number over 100,000 men, 2-5,000 ships, and countless siege engines. In
comparison, the defenders of the capital numbered just 15,000. Thankfully however the city featured
some of the most robust fortifications of its age which had been further bolstered
in anticipation for the siege. The walls had been fully refurbished, every tower
bristled with artillery, food had been stockpiled, the garrison was well-trained and most important
of all, the fire ships were made ready for battle. The Arabic army quickly isolated Constantinople
from the Thracian hinterlands, building a double stone wall on either side of the besieging
army. When Leo offered to pay the Arabs one gold coin for every inhabitant of the city to
lift the siege, the Umayyad commander refused. Constantinople would fall here, and with
it, the last traces of Roman hegemony. The Arabic fleet arrived soon
afterwards to begin the blockade. Because Constantinople was surrounded on
most sides by water, any siege would be impossible without a combined-arms approach
of both a land army and an overwhelming navy. This, however, is where the Byzantines
had their first decisive victory. As the Umayyad ships attempted to cut the city
off, Leo sprung his ambush. A small squadron of fire ships assaulted the rear of the Arab fleet.
All of a sudden 20 heavily loaded troop transports burst into flame. Over 2,000 marines were killed
in the matter of a few minutes. As dragon heads gleamed in the sun and bathed their fellow
sailors in fire, the rest of the Umayyad fleet was made brutally aware that the 40 year old
rumors of what had happened in the last Siege of Constantinople were true. Horrified, they refused
to go anywhere near the legendary fire ships. With the fleet now unwilling to even approach the
city, it proved impossible for their commanders to enforce their planned blockade. Supplies flowed
freely into the city and even the local fishermen were able to go about their activities as if it
were peacetime. To make matters worse, the winter months brought chilling colds which killed off
10s of thousands of men and animals. Supply issues also proved fatal. The long logistics route
along the Anatolian coast was prone to attack and countless ships were destroyed en route by
Byzantine ambushers, local partisans, or pirates. On one occasion it was said that some 500 grain
ships managed to run the gauntlet, bringing a ray of hope. However this was dashed when the
convoy’s largely christian crew chose to defect. This prompted the Emperor to launch new fire
ship raids which seized or destroyed the now understaffed supply fleet and any warships they
could get their hands on. In the aftermath, the invaders were crippled by both starvation
and disease. After little more than a year, the Grand Siege force was ordered to retreat. But
their struggles were now over. As they desperately attempted to straggle back to their homeland,
they were picked off piecemeal. Apparently over 90% of this enormous invading force was utterly
annihilated. Those few who survived would be haunted by the experience and spread word
of the dragons who defended Constantinople. This victory allowed the Byzantines to reclaim
the seas and take the offensive. Muslim commanders were caught on the back foot for many years but
did eventually develop counters to the fire ships. This involved fighting from a distance by means
of arrows and artillery or attempting to attack the fire ships from the rear. In addition they
reportedly began to coat their ships in hides soaked in water or vinegar which could dampen the
effects of greek fire or at least take the heat as sacrificial protection. Some sources claim that
by 900 AD they even attempted to deploy their own fire ships after capturing a Byzantine vessel
but these proved pale imitations. Nonetheless these countermeasures at least began to
even the odds between the eternal rivals. Other foes of the Byzantines were not so lucky. For instance in 941 AD, a massive Rus naval force
boasting some 40,000 men and hundreds of ships was launched against Constantinople to take
advantage of the seemingly undefended capital. Our sources recount the event as follows: quote "The Emperor Romanus, hearing of this,
was distracted by various thoughts; for his naval forces were either engaged against
the Saracens or occupied in guarding the islands. He spent some sleepless nights in reflection while
King Igor devastated the coast lands, and at last he was informed that there were fifteen old
battered galleys in the yards which had been allowed to go out of commission. Thereupon he
called the ships' carpenters into his presence and said to them: "Make haste and get the
old galleys ready for service without delay. Moreover, put the fire throwers not only at the
bows but at the stern and both sides as well." 'When the galleys had been equipped
according to his instructions, he called his most skilful sailors, and bade them
give King Igor battle. So they set out; and when King Igor saw them on the open sea he ordered
his men to capture them alive and not kill them. But the merciful and compassionate Lord
lulled the winds and calmed the waves; for otherwise the Greeks would have had difficulty
in hurling their fire. As they lay, surrounded by the enemy, the Greeks began to fling their fire
all around; and the Rus, seeing the flames, threw themselves in haste from their ships,
preparing to be drowned in the water rather than burned alive in their fire. Some sank to
the bottom under the weight of their cuirasses and helmets which they were never to see
again; some caught fire even among the waves; not a man escaped save those
who managed to reach the shore." Shortly thereafter, the main Byzantine navy
returned. These set upon the Rus who had been retreating with their accumulated plunder. Once
again, fire purged the seas of the barbarians and the entire fleet was said to be destroyed.
Devastated and with no effective counter, the Rus soon signed a peace treaty with terms in favor of
the Byzantines. In this way was the Empire of the Romans able to survive and even thrive for another
half millennium thanks to their Fire Ships. However by the end of the 12th century,
the Byzantines were in decline. Weakened both economically and militarily, they had lost
access to many regions believed to have supplied the ingredients for Greek Fire and may even have
lost the formula itself. It's around this time that Byzantine Fire ships all but disappear
from our records. As a testament to this, our accounts of the 1203 siege of Constantinople
by the Fourth Crusade makes no mention of the dragons which had once defended the city. Their
flames had gone cold and with them the Empire. Yet while the secret of the Byzantine
Fire Ships may have been lost, their legend inspired others
to follow in their footsteps. The Venetians for instance were said to have
deployed an imitation of Greek Fire on their ships which was blown onto the hulls of enemy vessels
through submerged pipes or dropped onto their decks from suspended carriages. However its
effect on the battlefield was never as pivotal as had been the case with the Fire Ships
defending Constantinople. It's incredible to imagine how history might have changed were
it not for the development of this ancient super weapon. What other military technologies
do you think come close to matching its legacy? A huge thanks to the Patrons for funding
the channel and to the researchers, writers, and artists for making this
episode possible. Be sure to like and subscribe for more content and check out these
other related episodes. See you in the next one!
