The Viking Age Explained

the Vikings few periods of History create as much excitement as the Viking age it kind of helps that they've had a whole Smash Hit drama television series dedicated to them and an American football team amongst other things but who exactly were the Vikings where did they come from why were they so successful across Europe Europe during the Early Middle Ages in this video we'll be answering all your burning questions about the Vikings although if you have another question drop us a comment and we might make another episode about the Vikings don't forget to like And subscribe to our Channel where were we ah yes the [Music] Vikings before we get started let's just get something out of the way way Vikings did not wear horned helmets the horned helmet was a 19th century invention popularized in German composer Richard vogner's Dinges nean Opera cycle in the 1870s the costume designer basically thought that horned and winged helmets looked cool and had the Viking rolls wear them and one of the biggest myths in history was born so if you see a viking looking like this then they are in fact not a viking archaeological evidence on Viking helmets is scarce but there has never been a Viking helmet uncovered with horns on it depictions of Vikings from the period show them to be wearing simple iron or leather helmets horn helmets have been a thing in history but not in the Viking age they appeared in different cultures in the Bronze Age but let's face it they would be completely impractical in battle if someone swung at your head and missed then they could easily hit the horn which wouldn't be very very helpful or the horn might get stuck in a bush as you're running through a forest so Vikings didn't wear horned helmets the Viking age began at the end of the 8th century when people started migrating from Scandinavian countries We Now call Denmark Sweden and Norway it's not fully understood why the Vikings ventured from Scandinavia so frequently but possibly a combination of overpopulation a lack of women to marry and rumors of the wealth of Christian kingdoms drove many men out onto the sea while a large land mass Scandinavia can be an inhospitable place and its people were in a constant battle for resources going and raids and Expeditions might resolve some of that the Vikings were never one Kingdom there was never one Viking empire that included all of Scandinavia and there were differences between these three primary groups of Vikings Norway way with its rugged mountains long coastline and fjords gave rise to a seafaring culture the Norwegians explored and colonized the North Atlantic Islands including the Pharaoh Islands Iceland and Greenland and voyaged onto North America Sweden is slightly more temperate and flatter than Norway along its South and Eastern coastal regions meaning better Agriculture and access to Natural Resources its Coastline also faces the Baltic Sea so swedes could easily travel to and from Eastern Europe and use its vast rivers to trade the swedes or Roose as they became known settled in modern-day Ukraine and Russia interacting with the cultures of the vulgar and the Caspian Sea regions as well as the bantine Empire Denmark being relatively flat with fertile soil was ideal for farming the Danes also established their monarchy the earliest and were the most politically stable out of the three groups Denmark actually has one of the oldest monares in the world dating back into the 8th Century largely because of Denmark's location Danish Vikings were more involved in Expeditions and settlements in Western Europe and the British Isles the borders we know today didn't exist in the Viking age and the interactions between these groups were fluid across Scandinavia there are alliances and conf icts trades and marriages and shared religious and cultural practices contributing to an interweaving of peoples in the Viking [Music] age wait a minute what does the word Viking really mean it's slightly strange that we refer to early medieval Scandinavian people as Vikings at all because they would not have called themselves that there was certainly no Viking ethnic group for this we can tune into to Dr Kat jarm talking on the gone medieval podcast we find two related words in Old North the noun vingan which is a person and vking which is an activity we found them on runestones and in poetry and a vingo was someone who went on Expeditions usually abroad we don't have a fuller explanation of the word vking and it's not as many people think a verb the meaning of it could include raiding it certainly wasn't only that it was only in the medieval sagas that the word became one with a negative connotation referring to Pirates and predators other names we Ed for the same people include the Norse so speakers of the Old Norse language ultimately the word Viking is not perfect and it's certainly not accurate but it's kind of the best we've got later on in the period the development of the kingdoms of Norway Sweden or Denmark would have meant these National identifiers would have become more common but even then it's doubtful many people from Norway in the 11th century would have called themselves Norwegian or indeed Viking instead they would have probably referred to their family name or local area so while the word Viking is associated with Expeditions and raids why exactly were Vikings so successful on the Seas During the period this comes down to the advances of a major Maritime Innovation the long ship long ships in Scandinavia have their Roots as far back as the early Iron Age or even the Bronze Age long streamline canoes and Boats were powered by ores which work well in coastal Waters a major step forward for seafaring came with the introduction of a keel into attachable Blade Runner which were both important for ship stability leading to the widening of the hole both of these are features of the kavalon ship discovered in 1920 in Norway which is an evolution between the long ship and its Iron Age predecessors importantly the stability granted by ail and Rudder also allowed for the addition of a sale various forms of ship were developed within the period and they are categorized by the number of ORS they had the smallest of these boats were used for trading and general purposes these were the sear ringa which had three rows of ores and the Carvey which had 6 to 16 ores larger warships that characterizes a sneaka which had 20 rowing positions and SK which had 30 positions the largest Viking longship ever found was in rosilda in 1997 and it had space for nearly 40 rows of Orman larger draa or Dragon ships are referred to in the later medieval Viking sagas but there is no archaeological record of anything bigger than the Ross kilder Discovery principally the long ship was made for speed with a thin streamlined hole that was symmetrical at the bow and Stern allowing for Swift changes in Direction Sals have been in use since at least 3,000 BC around the Mediterranean so why they became common in Scandinavia in around the 8th century is something of a mystery but the addition of the sale was integral to Viking seaf fairing and on calm Waters they could reach speeds of up to 15 knots so a long ship could leave Norway and reach the eastern coast of England in under a week the sails were made of wool and demanded a huge amount of resources to create a sail of 100 square m suitable for a ship with about 25 rows of ores sailmakers would have needed 75 Kg of wool from about 150 sheep it would have taken over 3 years to create 100 square met to sail another feature of the long ship that increased its speed was the clinker building method planks were fitted overlapping with one another these ships were both faster to build than traditional non-overlapping methods and were lighter the long ships small draft also meant that they could travel in Shallow Waters even rivers of 1 meter in depth were navigable they could make Beach Landings which were crucial for surprise raiding tactics smaller long ships were also light enough to carry or pull over land enabling Viking Crews to move between waterways with ease this was particularly important trading between the rivers of Eastern Europe how the Vikings crossed the North Atlantic to Greenland and onto North America is something of a mystery but they would likely have taken routes from the Pharaoh Islands to Iceland and then onto Greenland they did not have Maps or a compass and so would have relied on navigating by the Suns stars or by observing water currents one theory is the Vikings use sun crystals to locate the sun's position when it was hidden by the horizon or Cloud but there is no archaeological evidence for this Viking ships can cope with the North Atlantic even though they were open boats in terms of navigation they could do latitude quite accurately navigating both from the stars but they were very good at picking out appropriate landmarks and that kind of thing they could do latitude But like everyone else they couldn't do longitude very well and they didn't do maps there's no such thing as a Norse map so they navigated in ways that were different from us the Icelandic Explorer Leaf Ericson is attributed to making the crossing to North America around 1,000 ad according to The Saga of Eric the Red Erikson was on a mission to Greenland but was blown off course and reached Finland it was was called Vinland because of the growth of wild grapes in the region in the 1960s a viking settlement known as lanso Meadows was discovered by Norwegian explorers in New Foundland it has been suggested that this site was where Ericson landed lanso Meadows here's on a site that was previously occupied by indigenous people but there's no evidence of contact there are no burials there's no church what there is is three Lous houses three boat Crews perhaps and three storage Huts where they could keep supplies and possibly accommodate slaves so all the evidence points to some kind of Transit place for voyages further to the South it's also likely that the success of the Vikings at Sea had much to do with the weather from the 10th Century through to the early 14th century Western Europe appears to have had an unusually warm climate with their ship building prowess normen could take to the ice free Northern Seas to colonize the North Atlantic what's clear from looking at Viking long ships and navigation is that the primary evidence for the Viking age can often be quite sparse for example the first Viking longship to be discovered the tune ship was only excavated in 1867 being made of wood the ships have a habit of rotting away over a thousand years unless conditions preserve them but they do often leave plenty of iron rivets and Nails behind written sources from the period are also hard to find the Viking age took place in what has been labeled the Dark Ages this refers to the early medieval period from the fall of the Roman Empire up to around a th000 ad it's been called the Dark Ages because of the lack of written sources compared to the Roman era although many historians dismissed the term as too negative what we do have are extensively written Viking sagas but these have a few problems firstly they were largely written in the 13th century some 200 years after the end of the Viking age the most famous sagas were also written in Iceland which is some distance away from where much of the Viking activity took place they would have been passed down through generations through oral traditions and storytelling which means they could have easily been changed so the vi sagas often contain elements of fiction while they were written history they also may have been a form of entertainment the tale of Ragnar LOF Brook which was also written in Iceland talks of the hero killing giant snakes you can bet on that not actually happening there's also a debate as to whether Ragnar even existed at all but what the sagas do give us are indications of how Viking Society operated and the clues within often help historians make conclusions about the archaeological record beyond the written sources advances in archaeological science are improving our understanding of the Viking age there been something of a scientific revolution in archaeology over the last decade or two but those new scientific techniques things think like isotope analysis and ancient DNA are not on their own going to give us all the ansers but they can start to let us reassess some of those questions and especially about the Vikings satellite imagery makes it easier to locate and assess Viking archaeological sites while advances and radiocarbon dating allow historians to accurately date when artifacts were created so the other thing I've been able to do is look at something called strum oxygen isotope analysis because we are like walking Diaries of Our Lives of what the sort of food we eat and also the places where we are growing up we we sort of take up those chemical signals in our teeth especially as children so when your teeth are forming in childhood you take up oxygen and strontium that's very specific to that Geographic environment in your teeth and that remains there even a thousand years after your you're dead all of this put together the archaeological record written Viking sources and new analytical techniques allow historians to have a much better understanding of the Viking age but there was also plenty written down by other Europeans about the Vikings the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle was started by scribes in Alfred the Great's Court in the late 9th century sources like this detail the Viking invasions from the other side but we must also be skeptical because they were written by those being invaded they could have been used as a form of propaganda against the Vikings detailing their depravity we have to remember that the people writing the history books were normally the vict victims of the Vikings pretty much the only people who could write back them were were were members of the church so basically they were writing accounts of the Vikings attack attacking their own establishments hardly lik to be objective observers in that kind of situation having said that I I don't think we should underplay the violence of the Vikings either I mean they're looking at the evidence there doesn't really seem any doubt that they were extremely violent in the Saxon Chronicle one year stands out as the beginning of the Viking age 793 this marked the Viking attack on lindes Farm the holy seat of the kingdom of North Umbria in Northeast England God medieval co-host Matt Lewis went to lindis Fan to find out about this Viking raid and read out the listed premonitions of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle dire for warnings were come over the land of the north umbrians and miserably terrified the the folk there were excessive whirlwinds and lightning and fiery dragons were seen flying in the air dragons really doesn't sound completely reliable but while we're pretty sure that there weren't dragons in the sky there may well have been dragon boats in the water and they came for the monastic riches on Linda's Farm on the 8th of June the Vikings burst into Linda's F prior shattering the piece they went from room to room robbing stealing everything could find killing anyone that got in their way as the monks tried to hide their precious books that they were so proud of they realized that wasn't what the Vikings wanted they wanted the gold and the silver that was on the Altar and they wanted the humans as their slaves this wasn't the first Viking raid on the British Isles or indeed Europe but that Pagan Invaders could desecrate the north uman seat of Christianity sent shock Wes throughout the continent reaching the court of the emperor Charlamagne where the cleric aurin of York reported on it the Viking age had begun after the fall of the Western Roman Empire there had been many fractures kingdoms across Europe which often couldn't maintain the armies required to provide security some 300 years after the fall England was divided into numerous Anglo-Saxon kingdoms such as North Umbria meria and Wessex settlements and wealth were often concentrated on the coastline and rivers as it was much faster to trade by boat than crossing over forested land but a lot of wealthy places like Coastline monasteries were dangerously exposed the 8 century was actually quite uh quite a wealthy Century there was an economic boom uh lots of trading ports grew up on the coast of what we would Now call France and England and and the low countries uh so there was a lot of wealth around and Vikings particularly from Norway who are somehow left left out of this boom because of their geographical location suddenly thought hang on a minute there's some available weal there uh maybe they' done some small scale trading so they kind of knew where they were going anyway and all of a sudden they had this opportunity they could see the ports were not very well defended and uh there was an opportunity that they took advantage of in the early Viking age Raiders often launch surprise attacks from their longships these were typically Swift aimed at AC requiring Loot and captives before local forces could respond after the attack on Linda fan biking raids became more frequent the monastery at jarro also in North Umbria was pillaged just a year later but in the second half of the 9th century Viking attacks became greater in scale and more organized in 865 a large force from Denmark known as the great Heathen Army invaded Northeast England and began capturing territory it's not exactly known how large or great this Army was but it was probably in the low thousands while they were eventually defeated by Alford the great at the Battle of Edington in 878 the ensuing treaty allowed invading Danes to rule much of Northeastern England which became known as The Dan Law Danes then began to settle in the Northern and Eastern parts of England in the early 10th Century the Danish and Norwegian King Swain forkbeard invaded England repeatedly eventually declaring himself King Swain was succeeded by his son canuk the great who then ruled over a North Sea Empire of England Norway and Denmark there were two more Danish Kings of England until the kingship went back to the Anglo-Saxon line of Edward the Confessor in 1042 it didn't stop there though because when William the Conqueror took the English throne in 1066 he was in some ways a viking but that's to be explained rewinding back to the early 9th century the Vikings had also been busy raiding what is now northern France after the emperor charlamagne's death in 814 his Frankish Empire was hit by Civil Wars the neighboring Vikings then took advantage of the political situation through a series of raids the first major raid came in 820 as they took their longships down the river sen they later besieged Paris in 845 they were led by a Norse chief regen Harris who was possibly an inspiration for the legendary Ragnar lothbrook they managed to enter the city in Pillager but they were paid to leave by the king of West Francia Charles the bald Vikings then remained in West Francia seizing the city of Ruan in 876 and laying Siege to Paris again in 885 with a large Force possibly with 300 long ships they essentially occupied Normandy when the Danish leader Rolo agreed to swear allegiance to King Charles III of West Francia so this is where Duke Rolo uh of Normandy emerges a traditional Viking uh who gets given some land uh orgo Normandy to to to kind of keep him sweet and he will protect the French Kings against other Vikings which is pretty much what he did so the eventually became a very significant part of of France in its own right Rolo was the first ruler of the Normans the Normans were the descendants of Vikings so the Vikings were a menace in Western Europe during the 9th century they were raiding conquering laying Siege to cities and holding places to Ransom there's also the claim that they had Berserkers a kind of special forces that would be overcome with blood lust when fighting one Legend is that these Berserkers took magic mushrooms before battles to make them go berserk I thought it might be best to get the opinions of an expert on that there is absolutely no evidence whatsoever for the use of magic mushrooms of any description in Scandinavia in the Viking age to make people go berserk in battle that just about clears that one up then on the other side of Europe the swedes otherwise known as the Roose have been making voyages across the Baltic Sea into what we now call Russia in 882 the kavan rose was founded by the descendants of The semi-legendary Prince rurick and Viking settlements soon stretched from the Black Sea up to Finland these Swedish Expeditions were not as violent as the raids in Britain and France instead they focused on trade so while Vikings are best known for accumulating wealth through plunder and Conquest hence the name they also set up an extensive Trade Network throughout Europe with settlements and training posts springing up in places like Spain Sicily and North Africa in Sweden there were trading sites at Burker and gotland and after crossing the Baltic Sea Roost Traders could access waterways that would lead to the huge rivers of the vulgar and the Nea the word Roose derives from the old Norse word Roa which means too this also forms the name of the modern day country of Russia where many Viking people settled navigating the rivers of Eastern Europe could take the Viking Traders down to the Black Sea and then on to Constantinople the Vikings refer to the capital of the bantine Empire as mikard the big trade City the close links between Byzantium and the Viking world are indicated from the emperor's personal Bodyguard the vingan guard being mly made up of Norse Warriors including the later king of Norway Harold hrada check out his Wikipedia page it reads like a Hollywood movie East from Byzantium was the Abid caliphate who the roof would also trade with from there they could link up with the famous Silk Road Trading route which stretched Eastward all the way to China the roost Vikings would trade goods from their Homeland like Amber wool fur fish and wus ivory one story is that the Vikings hunted narwal whales and traded their unique ivory tusks at a premium claiming they were from unicorns genius they would import luxuries like wine spices silk and Ceramics from the South but they also had an insatiable appetite for one particular precious metal Silver this led to a system that is known as the bully in economy the Vikings did not have a system of coinage like the European kingdoms instead they traded on the weights and purity of metals particularly silver by the 9th century I'll give a little demo of how this might have worked I've just traded a bag of coins for some sunstones now let's have a look at them most of them look like base metal but then look at this some shinier ones including an Islamic one these could be silver a viking Trader would use a sharp Implement to scrape into the metal and check for its Purity then they'd use a set of these small portable scales to check its weight here you have a counter weight then we place some silver coins onto the balance I might then melt the silver down or trade the coins on but the value of the coin was unimportant the weight of the silver was in 2011 a large silver coin horde was found at Silverdale in in England within the 200 pieces there were Islamic coins showing how far the Viking trading Network stretched much of the silver that entered the Viking economy came from the Islamic World although this Supply largely ended in 965 when the mines in the Middle East were exhausted a darker aspect of Viking trade was its Reliance on slavery people captured in raids would often be taken back to Scandinavia slaves would occasionally be sold in Western Europe but the practice was unsavory for Christians slaves were more commonly traded within Scandinavia Eastern Europe and on markets in the Middle East such as Baghdad the trading of slaves was so extensive in Eastern Europe the name may have come from people who lived there the slaves the 9th century was a Heyday of slave trading in Eastern Europe with it becoming a common business venture for the Roose Vikings but a century later there was a surplus in slaves in the Islamic caliphate with prices falling dramatically there is more archaeological evidence of Viking activity to the east of Scandinavia than in the west this Legacy was founded on trade over raiding the extensive trade networks established during the Viking era accredited with rebuilding the European economy after the fall of the Roman Empire so far we've talked a lot about what happened in Europe during the Viking age but not so much about what happened in Scandinavia itself so what was Viking Society like we do know from the archaeological record that Scandinavia had very few towns and most people would have lived on farmsteads in small villages the early part of the Viking age was also politically unstable and often Lawless with power localized around Chieftain and tribal communities life for the average farmand would have often been harsh and short but Scandinavia itself was not a particularly violent place in comparison to the rest of Europe and it appears the Vikings concentrated their raiding largely on foreign Shores institutionalized systems of Law and government grew up in the late 10th Century establishing the national kingdoms of Norway Sweden and Denmark this came with growing urbanization albeit on a small scale one of the best illustrations of the Viking class system comes from a saga the rig ster or list of rig was probably written in the 10th or 11th century and details the creation of three distinct social classes at the top were the Jaws the aristocracy equivalent to an Earl in the English class system the Jaws would often be the chieftain of a community and be wealthy enough to commission longship building and Expeditions JS would also run local assemblies for Community discussion and debate these assemblies were known as things and have been operating in Germanic northern Europe since at least the first century ad this is a good Viking fact the O thing in Iceland was a was established in 930 and is possibly the world's oldest Parliament as it is still operating today in the middle of Viking Society were the Carls or Freeman who made up the majority of the Viking population they were free to own land and engage in trading like farming fishing and craftsmanship some freemen were also Warriors when not farming forming the backbone of Viking raiding parties and armies at the bottom of the hierarchy were the thrs or SL slaves who were usually prisoners captured during raids thrs were used for hard labor and could be bought sold or traded despite their lonely status it was possible for them to earn or be granted their freedom there is not much firsthand evidence of slavery within Scandinavia itself and it's difficult to determine purely from the archaeological record but it is likely that women and children made up the majority of the slave population and some of the women would have been concubines for the wealthier men one estimate is that as much as 10% of the Scandinavian population was slaves during the Viking era so long as they weren't THS women in Viking Society may have had more social freedom than many other societies of the era Viking poetry and sagas are often favorable to female characters depicting them as strong intelligent and commanding the respect of the community but technically they couldn't be defined as Viking women as the old Norse word only referred to men in reality the majority of free women would have been Housewives they would have worked on the farm housekeeping and making food when their husband went on an expedition the farm would be handed over to the woman to keep until he returned unusual for the period is that women could request a divorce while it isn't known how common this was sudden poverty marital violence or abandon Abandonment for long periods could all be grounds for divorce to prevent abandonment some women could have accompanied men on voyages for short raids such as Coastal attacks the accompaniment of women would have been unnecessary but for longer Expeditions sometimes with the intention of settling there is evidence of women joining the men to make Crossings for instance Vikings settled and colonized Iceland and parts of northern England and France amongst other places Scandinavian women would have almost certainly have joined the men on the longboats this brings us on to a Hot Topic were Scandinavian women involved in Warfare there is some evidence from burials and the sagas that women were involved in fighting these Viking Warrior women are referred to as Shield maidens or the mythical Valkyries that said just because the remains of women were found with weapons alongside them does not make them Warriors for now we can probably assume that over 300 years of History some women probably were involved in raids but it was by no means commonplace other differences with the rest of Europe were clear through religion Vikings initially followed a polytheistic and animistic religion they worshiped a Pantheon of gods led by Odin and included Thor and Loki not those ones although the Avengers is at least influenced by North mythology there's also the goddess Freya the goddess of love beauty and gold who wrote about in a chariot being pulled by two cats the Vikings believed in a cosmos divided into nine worlds interconnected by The Cosmic tree igdrasil the world we live on was referred to as midgard and was the inspiration for JRR tolk's Middle Earth Viking mythology also emphasized the idea of fate and heroism which which may have contributed to their boldness and exploration in Warfare half of those who died in battle would have been taken by the Valkyries to Odin's Hall of Valhalla in Asgard while the other half would have gone with Freya to folk vanger Christians in Europe often referred to the Vikings as heathens or pagans and the Christian sources often denigrate their beliefs there is some evidence of unsavory practices such as animal and even human sacrifice in Viking religion but it unlikely that the latter was widespread by the end of the 10th Century Christianity had made significant inroads into a Scandinavian Society jelling one of the major Viking sites in Denmark host runestones that speak of a shift from paganism to Christianity Harold Bluetooth who was king of Denmark from 958 to 986 lifted one of the jelling stones and brought Christianity to the country king Bluetooth is also where the connectivity thing gets his name from you know that magic thing that connects your phone to your earphones by the 10th Century at least the Danes were Christian and Christianity had spread throughout the rest of Scandinavia indeed the adoption of Christianity by the formerly Pagan Vikings is one of the key factors for the end of the Viking age conversion to Christianity facilitated diplomatic relations with the rest of Christian Europe leading to a decline in raiding the rise of more centralized kingdoms such as in England also lessened the vulnerability to Viking incursions Norway Sweden and Denmark had also established their own monarchies by this point in England the Viking age effectively ended in 1066 when the Anglo-Saxon King Harold defeated the Norwegian Harold hrada at the Battle of Stanford Bridge although King Harold was defeated by William the Conqueror a Norman and a descendant of the Vikings that's another story while there were further Viking raids on Britain after this point Viking Raiders would never again seriously threaten to conquer England so the Vikings were much more than their name suggests they were not just Raiders and plunderers in Britain they left a lasting Legacy Scandinavian settlers found in many settlements and intermingled with the local populations descendants of the Vikings were the English crown for centuries and Norse had a major impact on the English language they founded colonies on Iceland Greenland and they were the first Europeans to reach America half a millennia before Christopher Columbus did the same across Europe they established important trading networks that rejuvenated the economy leading to later medieval mercantilism and centuries of population growth there are many many things that we can credit to the Vikings but they most definitely did not wear horned helmets thanks for watching this video I'd really like to recommend Cat jarman's book RiverKings for a new interpretation of the Viking age through Cutting Edge archaeology and it was an important source for writing this script I also listen to a lot of Viking podcasts from across the history hit network from our shows God medieval and Dan Snow's history hit I've linked to all the episodes in the description so you can find out more about the Vikings also don't forget to ask us any question you want about the Vikings and we might well make another video like this video And subscribe to our YouTube channel you can also watch more Viking documentaries get all of our podcasts ad free and more by subscribing to our app head to history hit.com ssubscribe or look us up on the App Store use code Vikings and you'll get 50% off your first 3 months subscription

Channel: History Hit

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Keywords: history hit, history hit youtube, vikings history, vikings explained, vikings history explained, where did the vikings come from, where did the vikings originate from, where did the vikings live, where did the vikings settle, where did the vikings invade, where did the vikings go, where did the vikings, newfoundland vikings, newfoundland viking settlement, history of vikings, viking helmet history, viking helmet myth, viking longship history, viking longship

Id: iAUDaXNlZvQ

Length: 37min 57sec (2277 seconds)

Published: Mon Oct 30 2023