As the Second World War
entered its third year, Adolf Hitler and his Axis Allies continued their advance
into new and unconquered terrain. In 1942,
the vast armies of the Third Reich were plunging ever deeper into Russia, battling the Red Army
in the war torn streets of Stalingrad. While further south, they'd reached
the icy mountains of the Caucus. In North Africa, German and Italian troops
had crossed the border into Egypt and were edging closer
to the oil fields of the Middle East. In the Far East, Hitler's Japanese Allies had extended their influence far beyond
the confines of their tiny island empire and commanded great tracts of land
and ocean which stretched from Southeast Asia
to the remote islands of the Pacific. Millions of people
were to suffer unimaginable horrors as the Axis powers encircled the globe,
casting a reign of fear and terror across every nation they occupied. However,
for those who continue to struggle beneath the shadow of the new order, by the autumn of 1942,
hope lay on the horizon. The strength of the Allies was growing,
and with the Soviet Union, America and Great Britain now united, the balance of power
was beginning to shift. By November, the Allies would finally be ready
to launch their invasion of North Africa. While the Eighth Army
beat the enemy back out of Egypt, German and Italian forces
in the Western desert would soon face an attack on two fronts. In the meantime, the Soviet soldiers
fighting the Great Patriotic War in Russia were ready to launch
their counteroffensive at Stalingrad. As the city fell
beneath the icy grip of winter, the German 6th Army would soon
be trapped with no hope of escape. From the frozen plains of the Soviet Union
to the darkest jungles of the Pacific, the fight against the Axis
was gaining momentum. At last, the tides of war
were slowly but surely beginning to turn in the Allies favor. When Britain and France declared war
on Nazi Germany back in September 1939, most people
in the United States of America had been determined
to stay out of the conflict. Many believed that the Second World War
was a European affair and had nothing whatsoever
to do with America. Some were so convinced of this fact
that they spoke out in objection when President Roosevelt
began to take steps to help those fighting Adolf Hitler. It is our promise
to keep our boys out of foreign wars is no better than it's promise
to balance the budget they're already almost on the transport. As the conflict escalated,
Hitler drew on new Allies and when Japan signed the Tripartite Pact
with Germany and Italy in September 1940, an American presence
in the global conflict would soon be secured. On December the 7th, 1941, the Japanese
launched a devastating air strike on the American naval base at Pearl Harbor as a prelude
to their invasion of the islands of the Pacific and Southeast Asia. Over 2000 people were killed
at the base in Hawaii. Thus flames engulfed the giant wrecks
of American battleships and destroyers, within a day, the United States
had declared war on Japan. Three days later, on December the 11th, Adolf Hitler declared war on America. After years
of carefully preserved neutrality, the United States
suddenly faced war on two separate fronts. As the military were mobilized and troops began to leave
for foreign climes, the first problem
that faced President Roosevelt and his chiefs of staff was where
they should concentrate their war efforts. The Japanese posed a considerable threat
to American interests in the Pacific, shortly after the attack on Pearl Harbor
had seized the Philippine Islands, as well as Guam, Wake Island,
and a number of other American bases. Nazi Germany, on the other hand,
had occupied most of Europe by this time, as well as vast regions
of the Soviet Union and much of North Africa. Outside Russia,
only British and Commonwealth forces were left battling back the enemy
and there seemed little hope of subduing the Nazis
without aid from America. Adolf Hitler also had greater
economic strength than Japan. The conclusion was soon drawn
that Germany posed the greatest threat to the success of the Allies. The decision was therefore taken
to subdue Nazi Germany in Europe first, whilst in the Pacific,
fewer resources would be used to fight a holding action against Japan. Only when Germany had been defeated, could Allied forces be fully focused
on vanquishing the Japanese. No one could have foreseen,
however, the speed at which Japan would create its new empire. By 1942,
the Eastern enemy had claimed territory which stretched out
from the western border of Burma at the gates of India to the freezing
Aleutian Islands near Alaska and had conquered islands
as far south as New Guinea and the Solomon Islands
in the South Pacific. While the conquests mounted by 1942, some felt that more should be done
in the Pacific theater of war, and American naval commanders
were particularly keen that the attack on Pearl Harbor
should be avenged. Determined to strike back at the Japanese, Admiral Ernest King insisted
that an offensive should be launched on the island of Guadalcanal,
which was part of the Solomon Islands to the northeast of Australia. The Japanese had begun
building an airfield here and their presence in the area
was posing a considerable threat to Australian ports. King was concerned that the sea routes between Australia and America
would soon be severed. With troops
already arriving in the Pacific, this could have grave consequences for the possibility
of an Allied counter-attack. Despite the directive
that gave the European war zone priority, the Joint Chiefs of Staff in Washington
eventually agreed to King's campaign. By August the 7th, 1942, the first US amphibious landing
of the Pacific War had taken place, marking the beginning of America's change from defensive operations
to offensive action. The battles in the dark
and humid jungles of the Solomon Islands would nevertheless be long and bitter, with more men losing their lives
to deadly diseases than to the enemy. Out to sea in the meantime, fierce naval battles
would continue to rage, causing heavy losses to both forces. On October the 26th, 1942,
the carrier USS Hornet, which had launched the first attack on the Japanese mainland
during the Doolittle Raids in April, was hit
during the Battle of Santa Cruz Islands. It would be a major loss
for the American fleet, but little could be done
to save the carrier which suffered heavy bomb
and torpedo damage. Nevertheless,
the Americans had an important advantage, having seized the airfield
on Guadalcanal from the Japanese during the first days of battle. Henderson Airfield was now being turned
into a sizeable airbase would pose a considerable threat to any attempts by the enemy
to ship fresh troops to the island. As the Americans continued
their grueling battle for supremacy, the Japanese prisoners mounted. By December 1942, it was evident that King's campaign
in the Solomon Islands had been a success. While the enemy retreated further back
towards the west coast of Guadalcanal, it was decided that the weary US Marines could finally step down
and let the army divisions take over. By the end of the winter in February 1943,
Guadalcanal would be secure and the Americans would be ready
for their next step in the Pacific War. Meanwhile, over 4000 miles
to the north of the Solomon Islands, US soldiers were faced with
a very different challenge. The Aleutian Islands, which lay off the coast of Alaska
in the North Pacific, had been invaded
by the Japanese in June 1942, placing the enemy
uncomfortably close to Canada and the West coast of America. With the risk of aerial attacks
on the American mainland becoming a real possibility, it was decided
to send a small number of troops to occupy the island of Adak
just a few weeks after the invasion of Guadalcanal. From here, it was hoped that strikes
could be launched on Japanese forces based on the islands of Kiska and Attu. The bitterly cold weather
and freezing terrain would pose as much of a problem
to the US soldiers and the Aleutians as the heat
and disease ridden jungles of the Solomon's had posed to US Marines. From thick fog and high winds
to plunging temperatures and icy conditions,
the Americans based on attic would have much to contend with. Nevertheless, their determination
to defeat the Japanese kept them battling
through the worst of the weather, and they would soon be ready
to launch their first attacks on the enemy. The key to victory in the Aleutians
would be air power. Building a suitable airfield
to ensure that the bombardment of Japanese bases
could begin as soon as possible had been top on the list of priorities. Although conditions
were not always ideal for flying, once the airbase was ready for use, American pilots
would begin to brave the bitter weather and inflict as much damage as they could
on Japanese forces in the area. The battle to oust the enemy
would nevertheless take some time. It would be 1943 before American troops
could venture onto Kiska and Attu to ensure the Aleutians
were cleared of the invaders. While events in the Pacific
focused primarily on the invasion of Guadalcanal,
the war in the Aleutians would become known as the Forgotten War. The men who fought here
would still play an important part in the global conflict, however,
and many lives would be lost as they battled
to protect the American mainland and the Pacific Sea routes
from the threat of attack. Both the campaigns
in the Aleutians and Guadalcanal nonetheless remained secondary
to the more pressing issue of defeating Nazi, Germany. By 1942, hundreds
of thousands of Soviet soldiers were being killed
on the battlefields of Russia. The urgency of opening up
a second front in Europe was growing by the day. There had been much debate
amongst Allied Commanders about where to launch their attack. Back in 1941, Winston Churchill
and Franklin D. Roosevelt had discussed the possibility
of an ambitious cross-channel invasion from Britain into occupied France. The venture was widely supported
by American commanders, but the British were more reticent, wary of the strength
of the Nazis in France. The Armistice signed
between France and Germany in 1940 had placed northern and western France,
including the entire Atlantic coastline, beneath the control of Hitler's troops, and sending British
and newly trained American forces to face the battle hardy Nazis
was considered a suicide mission. In August 1942,
such fears had been justified when a small scale raid launched on Dieppe
in northern France had disastrous results. The port was fiercely defended
by the Germans, and of the 6000 Canadians
and British troops who'd taken part in the landing, over 4000 were killed, wounded or missing
by the end of the campaign. The tragedy made it evident that the Nazis
would not give up an inch of the territory they'd conquered without a tough fight. Although the experiences of Dieppe
would contribute to better preparations for the eventual invasion of France,
it was clear that more time was needed before a large scale attack
could be launched. Soon, an alternative mission
began to gain greater popularity. As well as France itself, the Nazis had control
of French colonies in Africa. These were playing a key role
in the Axis battles being fought out in the western desert. Ports in Algeria and Tunisia
ensured that crucial supplies for Italian and German troops
were arriving unhindered across the Mediterranean Sea
to North Africa. This was posing a considerable problem for British
and Commonwealth troops protecting Egypt. Despite all attempts
to stall the enemy advance, by June the 30th,
Axis troops led by General Erwin Rommel, had crossed the Libyan border
and had reached El Alamein, just 60 miles from Alexandria. There was now a real danger
that the Nazis would seize the Suez Canal, which was vitally important
to the balance of power in the Second World War. The Suez connected
the Mediterranean to the Red Sea and the rich oil fields
of the Middle East, and if seized by Hitler,
could have devastating consequences for the Allied war effort. While the situation
deteriorated in Africa, it was proposed that rather
than a cross-channel invasion into France, an invasion of North Africa
should be undertaken. The plan was to seize key ports
and airfields in Morocco and Algeria in a simultaneous attack
on Casablanca, Iran and Algiers. Allied troops
would then advance into Tunisia and seize the port of Tunis,
which would prove an important move in restricting access supply lines. British naval commanders felt
that seizing these ports would be a vital step
in gaining control of the Mediterranean, which would in turn be crucial
if there was going to be any hope of pushing the enemy
back out of occupied Europe. It was hoped
that after the invasion of North Africa, the Allies would then be able to advance
on the soft underbelly of Europe and invade Italy. American commanders
were initially reluctant to agree to the invasion
of North Africa, fearing that the British wanted to postpone a large scale
invasion of Northern France indefinitely. However, President Roosevelt
had formed a close friendship with Winston Churchill
and supported the move. General Dwight D. Eisenhower
was selected to coordinate the invasion, which was codenamed Operation Torch. In the summer of 1942, he arrived in London
to commence preparations for the attack. Meanwhile, in North Africa, the fight
to stall the Nazi advance continued. General Bernard Law Montgomery,
otherwise known as Monty, had taken over
the command of the Eighth Army in Egypt in August 1942. The Eighth Army
had fiercely defended their position in the Battle of El Hoffer
at the end of August and now formed a defensive line
which stretched from the coast to the impassable Qattara depression. This would ensure
that the Germans and Italians were held at bay for the time being. There was little doubt that Rommel's
troops would soon attack again, however, and Montgomery's focus
in the early autumn of 42 was on preparations
for a dramatic counter-attack, which would expel the Axis
from Egypt and drive them back into Libya. Vast quantities of weapons
and ammunition were stockpiled to give Montgomery's troops
superior firepower. Additional tanks arrived from America, and while more forces arrived
to join the Eighth Army, Montgomery soon had almost
200,000 men at his disposal. In the meantime,
Allied planes were doing all they could to destroy the Axis supply lines. Forces from Malta intercepted
Axis ships in the Mediterranean while the Desert Air Force
kept up a relentless campaign against Axis supply vessels
bombarding Libyan ports close to the border with Egypt. This meant that most of Rommel's supplies
had to be shipped to Benghazi and Tripoli, which were much further west
and an enormous distance from El Alamein. Soon, the flow of supplies crossing
the Mediterranean to the Axis Armies had fallen to a dismal level, and Rommel began to realize
that the war in Africa would not be won without more air support. The planes of the German Luftwaffe
were however, occupied in the battles
of the Soviet Union, leaving Allied Air Power
unchallenged in the Western desert. By October 1942,
less than half of Rommel's supplies were getting through,
and to make matters worse, the commander's health had begun to fail. He decided to take sick leave and departed
for Germany to recover from his illness, leaving his troops
to the command of General George Stone. However, the departure of Rommel
couldn't have come at a worse time because Montgomery
was about to launch his counterattack. Months of meticulous planning
were finally over, and on October the 23rd,
the Allied troops were bracing themselves for their greatest battle yet. The silence of the desert
all took heed of Monty simple message that each and every officer
and man should enter the battle with the determination to see it through,
to fight and kill, and finally to win. At 9:40 in the evening,
the onslaught began with the largest artillery bombardment
since the First World War. Nine hundred artillery guns fired
at the Axis lines for 15 minutes so the ground was soon shaking
with the sheer power of the attack. As the shells pounded
Rommel's defenses, the infantry advanced and were soon clearing
the way for the armored divisions. The battle would continue
for 14 days and nights, and although Rommel
made his way back to North Africa to help stall the Allied advance,
by November the second, he knew he was beaten. Despite orders
from Hitler to fight to the last, the Nazi commander
started his retreat two days later. Thousands of his men had been killed,
wounded, or taken prisoner. Although a portion of Rommel's army
had escaped to solemn near the Egyptian border, Allied troops would soon
be arriving from the west and the depleted Axis forces would have
to face the enemy on two fronts. Back in Britain,
the news of Montgomery's victory at El Alamein
was to be rejoiced across the nation, and for the first time
since the beginning of the war, church bells rang out
across the country in celebration. No one was more relieved by the news than
the Prime Minister, Winston Churchill. His popularity had begun to suffer
as the Allies were defeated in battles from Dunkirk in France
to Singapore, in the Far East. The news of Montgomery's victory
came not a moment too soon. While Rommel was beaten out of Egypt,
faith was restored in Churchill, who was finally able
to boast of an Allied success. In early November,
he announced, this is not the end. It is not even the beginning
of the end, but it is perhaps the end of the beginning. Churchill had no doubt
that the Battle of El Alamein marked an important turning point
in the Second World War, and many years
later he would write before Alamein, we never had a victory. After Alamein, we never had a defeat. The British finally
had a good reason to celebrate. However, many difficult battles
still lay ahead, and Operation Torch,
the invasion of North Africa would prove to be a diplomatic minefield
long before British and American troops had the opportunity
to land in Algeria and Morocco. Well, the campaign to succeed,
it was important to persuade the Vichy French Forces in North Africa
to collaborate with the Allies. Roosevelt was concerned
that British involvement in the invasion could jeopardize the entire campaign. Although France and Great Britain had fought together
in the First World War, and were Allied at the beginning
of the Second World War. When Paris fell to the Nazis in 1940,
the friendship between the two countries became strained, to save the least. The French government,
led by Paul Reynaud, had tried to escape the advancing Nazis
after the French capital was invaded, relocating a number of times
until reaching Bordeaux in southwestern France. However, some politicians urged
for an end to hostilities, and despite Reno's objections,
by June the 22nd, an Armistice was signed
between the French and Adolf Hitler. Reno resigned and was replaced
by 84-year-old Marshal Pétain, who set up a new government in Vichy. The Vichy regime was granted
full diplomatic recognition by America, who hoped to use gentle persuasion
to draw the Vichy French back to the Allied side
but Great Britain took a different stance. The collaboration
of the French with Nazi, Germany presented many risks
to the country, and there were fears that the French fleet, which was one
of the most powerful in the world, would soon be controlled by the Nazis'. The repercussions of this
would be catastrophic for Great Britain, which was already struggling
to survive as the Nazi U-boats tightened their stranglehold
on the Atlantic. Churchill, who'd been prime minister
for less than two months, ordered that the French Navy
should either join forces with the British Royal Navy
or be neutralized in some way to prevent the ships
from falling into German or Italian hands. There were already
French vessels in British ports, and these were swiftly boarded,
but the most powerful concentration of French warships
was at the port of Moselle Khyber in French Algeria. It was this squadron,
which was Churchill's greatest concern. Despite assurances from Admiral Darlan
and the minister of the French Navy that there was no danger of the Germans
seizing the ships in North Africa, the British Prime Minister was determined
to eliminate any possible risk to Britain's security. Churchill made one of the most
controversial decisions of his career when he ordered that
the French fleet be attacked unless it sailed
from its base in Algeria to Allied waters. After negotiations failed, the British
opened fire on July the third in 1940, and 1,297 French sailors
were killed with hundreds more wounded. There were many
who condemned Churchill's decision, and Admiral who had been ordered
to make the attack said it was the biggest
political blunder of modern times. However, while politicians
chastised the prime minister, the attack had proved to the world that the British would put up a fierce
fight to the threat of the Nazis, no matter what the cost. In 1942, however,
the events of the summer of 1940 posed a problem to the planned attack
on Vichy French territory in North Africa. Roosevelt felt that the French
would react better to American troops and suggested that all landing forces
should be U.S. troops or Marines. The British, who were keen on encircling
the remainder of Rommel's troops, were not to be left out, however,
and it was finally decided that while the attack on Casablanca
in Morocco and Oran in Algeria would be launched
by purely American forces. A combination of British
and American forces would invade Algiers. The British troops, in the meantime,
were instructed to sew the American flag to their uniforms in the hope
that this would appease the French. President Roosevelt
also made many other moves to ensure that the Vichy French Forces,
which far outnumbered the Allied units, would collaborate with the invasion plans. He wrote
a personal letter to Marshal Patton, urging him to support the Allies. He even tried to win over
the Arab population in North Africa by commissioning a proclamation stating that the American
holy warriors had arrived. Pray for our success
in battle and help us, and God will help us both,
was part of this unusual message, but it's unclear whether it had much
impact on the local population. In the meantime,
Roosevelt had sent a diplomat by the name of Robert Murphy to Algiers as his personal representative
in North Africa. Murphy had the task of making contact with all potentially friendly political
elements in Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco, and was assigned the task of finding
a French figurehead for the attack. Murphy soon became convinced
that General Henry Giroux, who'd recently gained fame
after escaping from a Nazi prison, was the man for the job. Giroux had been held captive
by the Nazis for two years, and although
he was a supporter of Vichy France, he refused to collaborate
with the Germans, a fact that boded well for the Allies. The alternative
for the French command in North Africa was General Charles de Gaulle,
who'd been based in London since the Nazis had occupied France. De Gaulle was considered
the leader of the Free French, but Roosevelt felt that if there was
to be any hope of winning over Vichy French commanders,
Girard would be the better alternative. For the time being, De Gaulle
was to be kept in the dark concerning all operations,
although he would later become an important presence
in the Allied effort against Germany. While the delicate
political situation was negotiated, hundreds of Allied ships
began heading towards North Africa. The central and Eastern task forces left
the British Isles to head for Algeria, while the Western Naval Task Force of 102
ships and over 24,000 American troops left the United States to cross the U-boat
infested waters of the Atlantic. Their destination was French, Morocco, and virtually all the men aboard
were going into action for the first time. Just a few months earlier,
they'd been working as clerks, lawyers, salesmen, and garage mechanics. Soon they would face
the overwhelming demands of battle. When the ships
were several days out at sea, they were briefed on where they would land and taught basic phrases
of the language spoken there. Instruction in French was supplemented
with lessons in elementary Arabic. While some learned languages,
infantry men worked endlessly on preparing the weapons
on which their lives might depend. On route, the men learned
more about their assignment. Soldiers and sailors, it's not known
whether the French or African Army will contest our landing,
but all resistance by whomever offers must be destroyed. However, when any of the French
soldiers seek to surrender, you will accept it
and treat them with the respect. You are brave opponents and future Allies. Remember, the French
are not Nazis or just. All three task forces
involved in the invasion were proceeding with the utmost secrecy. Although there were many concerns
that U-boats would attack, German command failed to realize
the significance of the convoys and the threat they posed to North Africa. In fact, some commanders believed that the ships
were supply convoys heading for Malta. Although the U-boats
failed to detect the Allied threat, there were other dangers
the invasion forces had to contend with. Stormy weather made for rough seas
around the Atlantic coast near Casablanca, and it was decided that the Western task
force should be diverted to Gibraltar, where the other ships were congregating. The Allied island base,
which lay between Spain and North Africa, was where General Eisenhower
had his headquarters buried deep beneath the base of the rock. However, the ships
preparing for the invasion weren't the only newcomers in Gibraltar. On the eve of the invasion, General Giraud
was smuggled to the base by submarine. Giraud believed
he would be commanding the invasion, and there were moments of confusion while Eisenhower explained
the mission through his interpreter. Eventually,
Girard agreed to be a spectator or be ready to step in later
as administrator of French North Africa. By the early hours of November the eighth,
the ships had sailed to their positions in preparation for the three
pronged attack on North Africa, and the landing forces
were launched from their mother ships. The Eastern Task Force
was split into three groups, two heading for beaches
to the west of Algiers and one to the east. That was practically
no French opposition here and some French generals
even greeted the American forces. In the meantime, 500 American paratroopers
had been flown in from the British Isles to aid the attack on Iran. Not all reached their target
south of the city, however, and the central attack force was left
to deal with the opposition alone. After a naval engagement in Tehran harbor. The troops started ashore in the early
morning of November the eighth, with one combat group
landing to the east of the city and another to the west. Their aim was to then converge and capture
the city by a double envelopment. Some units faced resistance,
but before long all fighting had ceased and the French
surrendered to the Allied troops. The second part
of the three pronged attack had been successfully accomplished,
but the third landing to the north and south of Casablanca
would be a different story. A coup to overthrow
the pro Vichy commander in Casablanca had failed and French defenses were now
in wait for the Eastern Task Force. The Americans were fired on
by elements of the French fleet and a fierce naval battle
ensued off the coast of French Morocco. Below, four of the French ships
were eventually sunk. In the meantime, the troops landing ashore
were encountering heavy opposition. While the battling continued,
there was a turn of events that would have a profound effect on the future
of the North African campaign. When the Eastern Task Force
had entered Algiers, it had been discovered that the Vichy
French commander, Admiral Darlan, was in the city on a private visit. With the opportunity to deal
with a senior Vichy representative who had greater authority than Giraud. Eisenhower began negotiating
with the Vichy commander and offered him the chance
to stay in control of French forces if he joined the Allies. Keeping the Vichy commander
would mean the Vichy regime, with its Nazi laws and concentration
camps would be maintained, and for many,
this was simply unacceptable. De Gaulle, who had now learned
of events in North Africa, was furious, and General Giraud was not enthusiastic
about working alongside Darlan. As news of Eisenhower's collaboration
with the Vichy commander spread overseas, there was much confusion in America about where the loyalties
of the Allied commanders lay, and many were dismayed by the negotiations
being made with Vichy France. However, the fact remained
that without the collaboration of Darlan and a permanent peace agreement
between the Allies and France, many more lives would be lost
during the battle for North Africa. Hundreds of French planes
and pilots stood poised for an attack on the Allied troops
now moving towards Tunisia. It was vital
that Darlan's cooperation was obtained, so that the rest
of the campaign could succeed. Finally, on November the 10th,
after coming to an agreement with Eisenhower,
Darlan ordered a cease fire and the French troops
laid down their arms. The fighting ended in Casablanca, and Allied forces could now continue
their march towards Tunis. However, the consequences
for Darlan would be grave. Marshall Patton immediately ordered
his dismissal from the French Navy and Hitler, furious with the news that
Darlan had collaborated with the Allies, ordered troops to march into unoccupied
France on November the 11th. However, the Nazi leader's
invasion of Vichy France only hardened the resolve
of the French to support the Allies and their troops soon joined the British
and American units heading for Tunisia. While the Allied tanks
rolled further east 1200 miles away, the Eighth Army were making swift
progress from the opposite direction, having driven the Axis out of Egypt. Montgomery's troops
continued to seize strategic ports along the Libyan coastline, and it was hoped that Rommel
and his troops would soon be encircled by the two Allied Armies. As the battle for North Africa continued, Adolf Hitler feared that Southern Europe
would soon be under threat. He ordered thousands of troops
and tanks to be sent to Tunisia to fight back the Allied attack. Meanwhile, General Kenneth Anderson
from Great Britain was leading the Allied race
for Tunis with the First Army. His troops were made up
of American and British soldiers from the Eastern Attack Force,
as well as French soldiers, and their aim was to reach
the Tunisian capital before the Axis reinforcements arrived. By November the 22nd,
Anderson's troops were ready to launch a major assault on Tunis, but the weather
began to hinder their advance. Within a week,
torrential December rains had transformed the arid landscape into a quagmire, and the Allies faced a slow and difficult
struggle across the unstable terrain. While mud now became
as much of an enemy to the First Army as the troops of the Axis, the Allies
arrived too late to seize Tunis. Nazi reinforcements
had already consolidated their positions and began launching their counterattack. It was clear
that the fight for North Africa was not going to be a swift
as initially hoped. The inexperienced American soldiers
would face a difficult fight before they could seize Tunisia. While the Eighth Army made
steady progress from the East, General Eisenhower was convinced
that the Axis would soon lose their foothold in the area. Back in Great Britain,
Winston Churchill was jubilant and celebrated the events of the past
month in a speech to the British nation. Now, we have just passed
through the month of November, usually a month of fog and gloom,
but on the whole, a month I've liked a good deal
better than some other months we've seen during the course
of this present unpleasantness. I say to you, let us go forward together
and put these grave matters to the proof. The invasion of North Africa had achieved
what the Allied leaders had hoped for. While combat continued, some of the pressure was now taken off
the Soviet soldiers battling around. In early November, Hitler had boasted
that Stalingrad is in our hands. While attention was focused
on events in North Africa, he seemed unaware
that the Russian general, Georgy Zhukov, had begun amassing
an enormous force to the north of the city in preparation
for a crushing counter-attack. By November the 16th,
the first snows of winter had swept across the Russian battlefields and fate was on the side
of the Soviet soldiers. The Volga River became a frozen bridge. The troops of the Red Army
could now cross over into the battle zone. Within days, they were ready
for their dramatic counter-attack and Russian artillery opened
a gigantic, enveloping maneuver with one army to the north of the Germans
and another to the south. Half a million Russian soldiers
and 15,000 tanks advanced in vast columns, while across the steppes, a band of 50,000 Cossacks
stormed across the winter landscape. Under the onslaught,
the German line began to bend. The Russians made a breach smashing
through the 6th Romanian Corps on November the 20th. Took off was for the two Russian forces
to meet far south west of Stalingrad in order to encircle
the entire German 6th Army and to cut its supply lines. Within four days, he'd achieved
his goal as the two spearheads of the Russian pincer movement
met 100 kilometers west of Stalingrad. 250,000 German troops
were now trapped inside the city. To prevent the 6th Army
from breaking the encirclement, the Russians began creating a corridor
to a width of over 100 miles, which would separate the army
from the rest of the German military. Hundreds of tanks
were soon moved into the area, along with 60 divisions of Soviet troops. However, instead of urging the 6th Army
to escape while they still could, Adolf Hitler ordered
their commander, General Friedrich Paulus, to remain in position
and to hold the city at all costs. On November the 23rd, Hitler declared that Stalingrad
was a fortress to be defended to the last. Hermann Goring, Hitler's deputy
and head of the Luftwaffe, had assured the Nazi leader that his planes could drop
supplies to the 6th Army. However, in reality,
providing for such a vast number of troops was beyond the capabilities
of the German Air Force. Appalling weather conditions,
technical failures and Soviet anti-aircraft fire all limited
the abilities of the Luftwaffe. While all attempts were made to get
supplies to the soldiers in Stalingrad, before long, those trapped inside
the city began to run out of fuel, ammunition, and most importantly, food. As Soviet forces consolidated
their positions around Stalingrad, battling to shrink
the pocket of Axis soldiers, the situation for the thousands of Germans
within became desperate. It was increasingly evident
that the Luftwaffe could not carry out their mission
to supply the 6th Army. Plans were made for a rescue attempt. The operation,
codenamed Operation Winter Storm, aimed to break through the encirclement
and relieve the trapped German forces. On December the 12th,
the German 4th Panzer Army under the command of General Von Manstein,
began their relief effort and initially, took the Red Army by surprise. They laid the large gate on the first day, and the spearhead forces successfully
defeated the Soviet counterattacks. However, by December the 13th,
the advance had slowed considerably, and three days later, the Russians
launched their second offensive. As resistance and casualties increased, Manstein appealed to Hitler
and to General Paulus to begin the 6th Army's
breakout operation, but both refused. The decision would prove fatal for hundreds of thousands
of men still inside Stalingrad. Although the 4th Panzer Army
continue to attempt to open a corridor to the 6th Army
between December the 18th and 19th, two days before Christmas, Manstein
was forced to call off the assault. By Christmas Eve, the fourth Panzer Army
began to withdraw to its starting position and the 6th Army
were left to their bitter fate. The final stages of Nazi Germany's attempt
to conquer the Soviet Union had failed, and by January,
the soldiers still alive in Stalingrad would have no option
but to surrender to the enemy. Around the world, the armies of the Axis
were fighting desperate battles, and it would only be a matter of time before the Allies
achieved their final victory. However, while many had real cause
to celebrate during the Christmas of 1942, the Allied commanders had little time
to pause in their continued drive to defeat the enemy. The fight for Tunisia
would continue far into the new year and it would be spring
before the Allies could claim their prize and march into Tunis. After Tunis, it would still be another
two years of fighting before the Nazis surrendered. Meanwhile, in the Pacific,
the struggle to vanquish the Japanese would be long and bitter
as the Americans fought some of the bloodiest battles
of the war to wrench one island after another from their control. Tides of war returned. There was still countless battles
to be fought across the globe, and the fight for victory
was far from over.
