The Secret Mission That Stopped Germany Creating The Nuke | Europe's Secret Armies | Timeline

[Music] on the night of February the 28th 1943 a nine-man team of British trained Norwegian resistance Fighters carried out a daring Act of sabotage that echoed around the [Music] world their target was the heavy water plant situated at VOR in the telemar region 150 mi from Oslo towering above the pl was the infamous harda vidda a frozen Plateau renowned for its inhospitable terrain and ferocious winter weather standing on a cliff accessible only by a bridge across a deep gorge VOR was thought by the Germans to be impregnable The Raid that night was to prove them disastrously wrong and dealt a fatal blow to Hitler's long-term War aims [Music] you in 1943 Germany and America were locked in a deadly race to be the first to create the atomic bomb whoever won the race would possess a weapon that could end the war at a stroke heavy water d2o which is rich in the rare isotope of hydrogen known as dyum was considered indispensable to moderate nuclear reactions in 1943 VOR was the only plant in the world where heavy water was produced [Music] continuously ironically when they set out from their soe base in Britain none of the nine men involved in the raid had any notion of its vital significance none of us had ever heard about the atomic bomb but when uh my group left Colonel Wilson said to me that this job is very very important if the Germans get hold of heavy water they will be able to blow up some part of London or word like like that well I didn't believe him I he's telling me this because it he want us to do a good job but the first I knew about atomic bomb was and the bomb fall on hosim the vmar sabotage operation was a complete success surveying the damage ganal obas Nicolas Von Falcon hor head of the vermark forces in Norway described the raid as the most Splendid coup I have seen in this [Music] war it was a coup that could only have been carried out by men with intimate local knowledge an inbred capacity to cope with the harsh terrain and sharply honed survival skills in other words by native Norwegians the path to effective organized resistance had been a long and painful one for Norway it began when the German Army launched operation vzer rabong on the 9th of April 1940 sweeping into Norway and Denmark in a meticulously planned lightning assault that succeeded in placing German troops on the streets of Oslo and Copenhagen within the first 24 hours citizens in both capitals were stunned by the speed of the occupation and appalled by the violation of their neutrality the swasta was run up the flag pole of the aesus fort the headquarters of the Norwegian military even as German troops were seizing control of airfields and the country's main coastal towns Stanga Bergen Trondheim christiansand and [Music] narvik but the shock of events did not prevent the Norwegians from achieving one vital Victory on the day of invasion when they sank the German Heavy Cruiser bla in Oslo FJ with Coastal gunfire this allowed King hawan iith to make good his escape from the capital along with the government and other members of the storting the Norwegian Parliament when the Germans demanded Norway's capitulation hawan refused point blank in Oslo Von quisling leader of the Norwegian Nazi party announced that he had temporarily taken over the Reigns of power and declared resistance to German troops a crime it was a time of choice for the Norwegian people Gunna sense to be a resistance fighter and Norway's most decorated military hero sums up the feelings of the population at that time to beginning it was all a shock to everybody so in the first period it was very difficult what to do but we understood that we had now got the Nazi tyranny which was well known in Germany well hadn't realized what had they what they have been through I think but we had it now and uh felt it for 5 years the weeks that followed the German invasion were confused and chaotic British French and polish troops fought alongside the Norwegians in a doomed attempt to win back Trondheim and to throw the Germans out of navik in the North it was from here that iron ore freighted by rail from the Swedish mines at yel was exported to Germany in the final week of May Allied Forces succeeded in recapturing the port but with France crumbling under the onslaught of Von Rad's panzas the British troops in Norway could no longer be supported they were desperate needed Elsewhere on the 31st of May the order was given to evacuate narvik by June the 7th most of the Allied troops had embarked leaving Norway to its fate at the hands of the [Music] Germans on the same day King hawan and his cabinet boarded HMS devenshire at truma and sailed for England it would be five years before he returned to Norwegian soil 3 Days Later Norway capitulated the doomed Allied campaign in Norway during the early summer of 1940 had an important political effect in Britain it was the final nail in the cofin of Neville Chamberlain's government on the 10th of May he resigned and was replaced by Winston Churchill as acting first Lord of the admiralty Churchill's own part in the abortion Norwegian campaign had not been blameless but the country wanted as its leader someone who by his implacable opposition to the policy of appeasement gave notice of a new determination to stand up to Hitler for the time being however there was very little anybody could do to help the Norwegians who were coming to terms with living under the Nazi yoke it was a general feeling that maybe the war was lost and remaining politicians in Norway they got into some sort of negotiations with the Germans what Germans wanted was to to create a new regime and they persuaded in various ways uh Norwegian politicians to let go of the government renouncing the government and even urging uh the the king to abdicate his answer which was in fact written by the foreign minister uh was uh given in a speech uh from London which cleared everything it was a resounding no to abdication and making it very clear that the government in Exile was no Way's government that was a really morale booster for for for most Norwegians but for a country that hadn't been engaged in war for 125 years learning how to resist an occupying power was hard at first there was no question of any kind of armed resistance there were no underground networks no arms no support from abroad no men trained in sabotage and Guerilla Warfare inevitably the first signs of resistance came from among ordinary civilians the paperclip is thought to be a Norwegian invention um during the occupation people started wearing paper clips in their jackass almost like that as a demonstration as a symbol we cling together we keep together so it was a sign of national Unity against the German and the Norwegian Nazis so this wasn't one of many such signs which can be categorized as the paperclip Spirit maybe treat yourself to the best gift in history this holiday season enjoy unlimited access to award-winning podcasts and thousands of hours of original history documentaries released weekly exclusively on History hit there are topics for all history lovers from Pompei to D-Day sign up via the link in the description for an exclusive discount don't miss out on this incredible opportunity to explore the past like never before with history hit this found expression in an almost Universal hatred of quizzing and the Norwegian Nazi party the nazal samling in the Autumn of 1940 re's commissar Yosef Toran abolished all other political parties and formerly installed quisling as prime minister quisling does struggle to gain popular support he was a head of a minority party probably didn't get more than two or 3% of the vote prior to the war and although he hoped to get a membership of about 100,000 during the war he only gets a membership of 35,000 whereas the king remains how should we say the heart of Norwegian Society providing a focus uh a center of unity I think for the Norwegian population he's broadcasting of course from Britain and you have a fairly homogeneous society actively opposed at least mentally to the German occupation for most civilians resistance was passive it took the form of a dogged refusal to cooperate one of the first groups to make their feelings known were the country's Sportsmen who went on strike refusing to take any part in Nazi run competitions in December 1940 the Supreme Court protested against Nazi encroachments on the rule of law and leading judges resigned on mass in 1941 22 Civil Service organizations issued a letter of protest to tooren many professionals from all walks of life including Engineers lawyers accountants and dentists joined what they saw as an ideological struggle for the soul of their country by utterly refusing to cooperate the Nazi party uh tried to get hold of the organizations so it was really uh to a large extent a battle for uh organizational Norway and so uh lots of these organizations uh were uh voluntarily disbanding themselves and went underground so you had networks of doctors and lawyers and uh such kinds of and even teachers and even officers uh so so uh that was the first thing I I I I think organizational networks early in 1941 the country's Lutheran Church issued a powerful statement condemning the new Administration and rallying the populace eventually the struggle came to a head over the issue of a new catechism demanding obedience to the party the Bishops resigned on mass followed by 797 of the country's 858 incumbent clergy many leading churchmen of various denominations were arrested and intered or banished from their parishes the Norwegian church is empty and they protest believe it or not to the rights commissar Joseph turban the essentially the German ruler of Norway above quiz's head and Turan always Keen to embarrass quisling didn't like him very much I didn't really rate him or his party um actually tells quisling to drop this essentially when it came down to it the Norwegians could get away with civil resistance on issues like this so long as it didn't undermine overall German control or undermine um production for the German economy in accordance with that policy when a wave of unofficial strikes occurred in 19 41 the ring leaders were arrested and [Music] shot the Nazis also made persistent efforts to introduce their ideology through school textbooks and directives in February 1942 they attempted to organize all teachers and enforce national service for all young people along the lines of the Hitler Youth the teachers refused to pledge loyalty to the regime and 12 th000 of the 14,000 strong profession openly protested at the youth program 1,300 of them were arrested at random and many were sent to concentration camps to suffer hard labor after one year many had died but they didn't give in so the Germans and the no Nazis was a few of them they gave up uh to nified school they wanted the young scho Tre to put in uniform Nazi uniform but they highly refused and they did never never force it on the Norwegian population and one thing was very strange it was about more than 300,000 Housewives they wrote the letter and they said we refuse that you take our children into Nazi uniform so it was a fine job from very important part of the population amongst those most in danger from the Gestapo were the true Norwegians who almost from the very start of the occupation were determined to preserve free speech and counter naazi propaganda many of them contained news derived from broadcasts by the BBC heard throughout Norway on illegal radios the people people had been brave enough to keep their radios that took down the news and they had the typewriter and they had P piece of paper and they copied this and so it started actually what we call illegal newspapers but it was actually secret newspapers with all world news so in the first 2 3 years it went fairly well but then in that period about more than 5,000 were discovered as a newspaper people and they were sent to German the concentration camps in Germany to die more or less and so many as 220 editors newspaper repor were killed they were shot because I did this anti-propaganda as elsewhere prison camps were routine part of the apparatus of Nazi repression there were over a dozen in Norway the largest of these was greeny in the outskirts of Oslo which also acted as a Transit camp for prisoners on their way to camps in Germany or elsewhere approximately 50,000 Norwegians were arrested by the Germans during the occupation 9,000 of whom were sent on to Germany 1,400 of them died more than half of these were Jews around 40% of Norway's tiny Jewish population of 2,000 luckily around 60% got away to Sweden but some 760 770 maybe uh were actually arrested by the Nazis uh with sadly enough assistance from the Norwegian police and they were all sent to German concentration camps uh aitz uh most of them and less than 30 survived the worst of the concentration camps inside Norway were those constructed in the far north in finmark especially to hold Russian prisoners over 100,000 prisoners were held in appallingly primitive conditions and used for slave labor after the war 177,000 bodies were found to support its soldiers in Russia Germany requisitioned goods from the Norwegian population items such as blankets boots tents Ruck sacks and wind cheaters had to be handed in Failure to comply was punished by 3 years imprisonment severe rationing was enforced and the population came to depend on food Parcels from Sweden and Denmark on occasions Danish soup was all that stood between Norway's children and starvation some items like leather goods disappeared altogether Replacements included such things as paper shoes with wooden soles and fish scale handbags it was a miserable time for ordinary people as Nazi repression became more brutal an increasing number of Norwegians looked to Sweden as a safe haven in the early months of the war Sweden had only preserved its neutrality and independence by coming to an accommodation with the Nazis the Swedish government had even refused King hawan safe Passage through their country when Norway fell to the German invasion certainly in the early days you might well be intered if you escaped into Sweden and there are certainly cases of um German deserters being handed back to the German authorities um but I suppose the real importance of Sweden is it provides a refuge for the Norwegian resistance if things are getting too hot you can escape across that long and difficult to police border and it was fairly easy Once you got to Stockholm if you're important enough of course to be shuttled back to Britain on a mosquito it was very important for Norway that Sweden was neutral it was extremely valuable and more than 50,000 Norwegian saved their lives getting out over the border to Sweden and they were very well very well uh treated and taken care of in Sweden but I would say 50,000 were saved because of a neutral Sweden Norway's long border with Sweden was matched to the west by an equally long coastline some 2,650 km easily accessible from the shetlands and the UK mainland it provided a means for escape for some 3,300 Norwegians fishing boats carried most of them but some smaller and less seaworthy craft were used and around 3,000 were Shipwrecked the young Norwegians who escaped to Britain by boat or via Sweden formed the core of the wing of military resistance that carried on the fight from abroad and helped to give that government credibility in the eyes of the population at home but it should not be forgotten that one section of the Norwegian population had been deeply involved in the struggle against the Nazis right from the start the sailors of the Merchant Marine when Germany invaded Norway the Norwegian Merchant Marine consisted of 1,172 vessels totaling more than 4.4 million tons 252 of these totaling almost 2 million tons were tankers at that that time agreements between Britain and Norway meant that Britain had already chartered nearly 2 million gross tons including 60% of the tanker Fleet after the invasion quisling ordered all Norwegian ships to make for German Italian or neutral ports but the Norwegian government in London managed to requisition the fleet thus gaining for itself a major bargaining chip with its British hosts and a substantial Revenue earner throughout at the war what Britain gained was a Lifeline we had the third biggest Merchant Fleet in the world we had the most modern tanker Fleet in the world so we could Supply London England when England had no supplies the first two years of the war that were more or less dependent on the Norwegian tankers first of all supplies of gasoline uh and um oils that was very important uh and U they said uh our war started September 39 with our Merchant Navy because they were torpedo from that time on when they went to Allied harvor which they did all the time Norwegian Merchant ships played a major part in the battle of the Atlantic and in all Allied Seaborn oper ations throughout the war the cost in lives and ships was appalling in 1940 216 ships were lost in 1942 a Norwegian ship was lost every other day by the end of the war over 50% of the fleet had been lost at a cost of 3,743 lives with a legitimate government in London and young men flocking to join the fight Norway's commitment to the Allied cause was not in any doubt the problem that now faced the authorities in London and at home was how to organize an effective military resistance without jeopardizing the civilian population for various reasons this problem was to prove singularly difficult to overcome in the years that followed the resistance Museum in Oslo is housed in an old building in aesus Castle next to a memorial that marks the spot where Norwegian Patriots were executed by the German occupying forces their death was part of a bitterly hard learning process for a peac loving population with no great military tradition and no experience of organized resistance to an Invader resistance had to be invented had to be taught had to be learned the military organization the mill or was formed gradually and in the Autumn of 1941 it was authorized by the Norwegian government in London milog was slow to expand and at first avoided action and even weapons gradually building up a secret centralized Army and preparing quietly for the day of Liberation its intention was to go slow lie low and by not attracting attention avoid placing the lives of ordinary citizens at risk there were of course difficulties um Norway was quite an open Society people weren't great at keeping secrets this is certainly a theme that seems to run through British um cooperation with the Norwegians um and the Gusto did manage to penetrate certain groups on the west coast in 1941 with you know roundups and arrests that follow but I think by by the late by late 1941 this has been got over and we see them moving towards um something of a more effective more homogeneous resistance movement coordinating resistance under the harshly repressive Nazi regime was a severe challenge because Norway suffered the highest level of occupation of any country in Europe 250,000 troops by 1942 rising to over 400,000 by the end of the war one German for every 8 Norwegians and in a country where Bridges and Ferry Crossings create natural bottlenecks policing the population through identity cards was comparatively easy I had to leave my home in Oslo of course U I had a room rented there and I had my different passports I had to make a new passport in the name of a Anderson instead of sun and later on it was discovered by the secret police and then I I had to shift so and I stayed now from 42 I had 10 almost 10 hideouts so um I had no difficulties to keep away from the one way that nor rians could make a serious contribution to the war was to supply intelligence to the Allies for more urgent intelligence there was a network of Wireless operators particularly along the coast their task was to watch the movements of the German Fleet along Norway's Jagged Coastline Norway is only really important in British strategy when it comes to the German Navy which virtually the entire surface Fleet is based there and for the British the threat that this might initially break out into the Atlantic uh later on attack the Arctic convoys is of major significance this network operated jointly by sis and the Norwegian intelligence office in London grew rapidly their most celebrated success was the sustained 2-year observation of the battleship turits as it moved from one hiding place to another she was finally destroyed by bombing near truma in 1944 in land mogg set up a further 70 stations of its own using secretly built equipment and soe had its own networks all of them were highly vulnerable to sophisticated German direction finding techniques records show that the Norwegian intelligence office in London handled nearly 6,000 radio reports and 20,000 reports by Courier in the course of the war the contribution these agents made to the eventual Allied Victory Is incalculable yence Anton palson was among the thousands of young men who escaped from Norway and ended up in England looking for a chance to take the fight back to the enemy he joined Norwegian independent company number one known as the Martin linger company after its founder members of the company underwent rigorous Fitness training and learned sabotage techniques under the overall control of the Special Operations executive S soe I went through all the s soe courses with two or three at that time I think and later on I believe I have been through most of the cultes St so was running norig independent company number one we got a very nice place in Scotland in the aore area with the Kor mountains and Country it's very similar to Norway very good place to stay and and train for new many s soe trained agents were on their way back to Norway via what became known as the Shetland bus a clandestine Ferry operation consisting of fishing boats it was an extremely hazardous operation often undertaken in foul weather and Heavy Seas and with the constant risk of capture or Worse s soe's Shetland base was also used to launch Commando raids against German forces and installations in Norway one such raid was the Claymore operation Against The Loon Islands on the 4th of March 1941 undertaken without the prior knowledge of the Norwegian government in London who protested on behalf of their citizens who suffered reprisals with homes burned and people arrested Norwegian commanders who had taken part in The Raid felt disillusioned and began to doubt whether it was right to operate under British orders to achieve British military objectives this view was compounded by the death of Martin linger in the anklet raid against moroy in December 1941 milor of course is operating operating under a philosophy that they are saving their strength for the day that the Liberation comes and thus Can Be an Effective sort of secret army um in support of any Allied Landings in Norway and their husbanding their strength while s soe are coming in and causing trouble which of course often leads to crackdowns um and that leads to tension between the two groups indeed amongst s soe there is a belief that milog is a bunch of dangerous ameters and should be avoided at all cost 1942 was a bad year for mogg many of its networks were penetrated hundreds were arrested 24 of its leaders and a number of innocent citizens were shot the setback brought about a wholesale revision of milog strategy the choice was Stark it could remain poorly trained poorly equipped and vulnerable or it could become a decentralized fully trained and armed gorilla Organization for that it needed London's help the most famous action involving s soe trained soldiers of the linger company was the gun ofde operation against the heavy water plant at VOR in February 1943 it was vital to Norwegian interests that the attack should be carried out by sabur because a bombing raid would be hazardous to the local population a fourman team codenamed grous was dropped onto the nearby hardanger Plateau by Parachute on the 18th of October 1942 to make contact with s soe's undercover agent working at the plant Anar shineland codenamed swallow they were dropped quite a long way from the operational area and that was because we were going to drop blind there was no reception coming on ground so I want to be quite sure that we wouldn't get in touch with any German patrols and so on it took us 14 days to move that short this distance because of all the the equipment we had to bring with us the plan was for GR to base itself in a commandeered skiing Hut and prepare for a glider born Commando attack that was scheduled to occur a month after their arrival 34 Royal Engineers were to make the Commando raid its code name was freshman in the event it was a catastrophe both gliders crashed one near lur and the other near egerson the few survivors of the impact many of them badly wounded were rounded out by the Gestapo tortured and shot the Freshman operation was a disaster they were very unlucky one of the problems was that the lights we have got that was ordinary British Army flashlights and I think they were good enough had a later in the war we used quite more more used more powerful lights so if you had had good lights who spread their beam bed I'm sure the finders Founders the gr team were ordered to remain in place to prepare for second attempt they withdrew up into the Wilderness of the hardanger plateau Out Of Reach of German patrols to await orders in the event they were forced to survive the incredibly harsh conditions for another 4 months for days on end they would be pinned down in their heart by howling wind and driving snow on more than one occasion they came close to starvation the most important most to to stay alive but that meant uh wood for our stove in the Hut we had Frozen and it meant food the day before Christmas I shot the the first reindeer and we spent a very very nice Christmas eating eating and eating back in London it was decided not to try another Commando raid but to send in a second small team of s soe trained Norwegians to complete the job their leader was second leftenant yoakim ronberg the operation was codenamed [Music] gunnerside on the 16th of February after many delays and flights aborted by bad weather the six-man team dropped onto the hardanger plateau it was 6 days before they made contact with the gr team the problem was when they got a m message that they had landed a tremendous snow storm broke up so we were very anxious about them after a week the weather cleared and went up to Lake col Shan to look up for them and I met there so we was a very happy re Union we all knew each other from from from England from Scotland the combined party quickly decided that the best line of attack was to drop down into the gorge cross the icebound river at the bottom and attempt to climb the sheer cliff on the other side a route that is still considered to be treacherous today but despite the dangers this route was their only means of Escape so they would have to complete the operation without alerting any of the German guards on the day of the attack hbag one of the gunnerside team wrecked the route and declared it possible the only problem was that a Thor had set in because of the mild weather there was quite a lot of water in the river and there was only one ice bridge to cross at that place if that had also had gone we would have been we must have looked for another place and that was had would have been very difficult the wet snow made the going hard and in the bottom of the gorge the rapidly thoring ice cracked and groaned as they made their way across the river by a quarter to midnight they were safely out of the gorge and hiding only a few hundred yards from their objective the looming bulk of the vmor plant at 3:00 a.m. they made their silent assault cutting through the thick chain lock on the giant wire mesh Gates and taking up their positions in the compound two members of the mil team rberg and Kaiser made their way along a narrow cable shaft and dropped down into the cellar where the Machinery that concentrated the heavy water was situated there they overpowered the Norwegian night Watchmen and rberg set about placing explosives on the cylinders of water 25 minutes later they released the night Watchman and burst out of the steel door of the cellar Into the Night a few seconds later they heard the dull thud of the explosion the sound was muffled by the noise of the factory and the thick concrete walls in that moment Hitler's Atomic scientists lost 3,000 lb of heavy water about 4 months production at the sound of the explosion the door of the nearby German Barracks Hut swung open and a half-dressed Soldier appeared flashing a torch the beam passed inches above the head of one of the hiding sabots after listening for a while the century turned and walked slowly back to his heart today we know the reason why no shot was fired was because the the Germans didn't do that job the German guards didn't do that job we very very lucky I believe the British as is saying you get you get what luck you deserve maybe we deserve it I don't know but at least we were very very lucky once safe in the mountains the party split up some of them were to stay in Norway while five were to make an epic 400 km journey across the hanga Vida to the Swedish border it was several days before London leared that the raid had been a complete success soe was jubilant as was Downing Street but more than anything else it was a huge victory for Norway and those of its citizens who had chosen to resist the German tyranny the Germans worked frantically to repair the damaged Machinery at VOR the S soe undercover agent shineland told London that the plant would be back in full production by August once again the Americans raised the possibility of bombing the plant and this time the plan was accepted but only because the Norwegian government and high command were not told about it on the 16th of November a fleet of 300 flying fortresses and liberators took off from East Anglia and headed for VOR only 18 of them hit the plant the heavy water High concentration cells escaped almost intact 22 Local citizens were killed the Norwegian authorities in London were incandescent with rage the Germans decided to remove all remaining stocks of heavy water to Germany in February 1944 on Sunday the 24th of February Norwegian sabur placed a bomb in the bow of the hydro ferry that would trans sport the rail wagons containing the heavy water across Lake tinure on Sunday the 20th of February the bomb exploded as planned at 10:45 sending the ferry and its cargo to the bottom sadly 14 Norwegian passengers were drowned but once again the point had been proved that a small team of highly motivated and well-trained Norwegian sabots could achieve what a massive bombing raid could not once the British and Americans who of course are quite well developed on their atomic project at this time discover the Germans are working on the same thing this has to be stopped and of course we should remember Heisenberg the head of the German atomic bomb projects biographer actually says the verar raid limits the Germans to small scale reactor experiments they're not thinking about building a bomb after the raid in the Final Phase of the war the Norwegian military resistance organization mogg finally came into its own with the aid of London it had gradually been building up its strength in early December 1944 a directive was issued by General Eisenhower the idea was to keep the Germans in Norway uh and in order to do that one should sabotage against Railways shipping and fuel facilities to slow down the transfer of German troops from occupied Norway to the continent so the M org got the opportunity to to carry out sabotage this actually happened after the German surrender in Finland in the Autumn of 1944 when large numbers of troops were withdrawn into finmark and then southwards the AL didn't have any any forces to to use in Norway at that time so if he had wanted to fight on it would have taken a hell of a long time to to eliminate him in the event General Burma signed the German surrender in Norway on the 8th of May 1945 and mogg did not have to fight their role in the risky transition period was to stand guard protect buildings and maintain order and there was also the matter of rounding up the traitors and and collaborationists unlike France which saw a massive bloodletting after The Liberation Norway handled the matter with dignity and due process some 25 traitors including quizzing were executed on June the 7th 1945 5 years to the day after he had been forced into Exile King hawan iith set first on Norwegian soil again Norway's long nightmare was [Music] over

Channel: Timeline - World History Documentaries

Views: 91,661

Keywords: Allied Intelligence, European History, German Occupation, German Occupation of Norway, Historical Artifacts, Historical Discoveries, Historical Documentary, Historical Education, Historical Events Uncovered, Historical Importance, Historical Secrets, Historical Warfare, Nazi Advanced Technology, Norway, Nuclear Arms Race, Nuclear Weapon, Operation Gunnerside, Secret Operation, Suzannah Lipscomb, Timeline - World History Documentaries, War Strategies

Id: qUQkwC8QL68

Length: 47min 44sec (2864 seconds)

Published: Sat Nov 25 2023