In the late 13th century, Osman I
established a small beylik, or principality, in what is now Turkey. In just a few generations, this beylik
outmaneuvered more powerful neighbors to become the vast Ottoman empire. What enabled its rapid rise? In Osman’s time, the Anatolian peninsula
was a patchwork of Turkic principalities sandwiched between a crumbling
Byzantine Empire and weakened Sultanate
of the Seljuk of Rum. Osman quickly expanded this territory through a mixture of strategic
political alliances and military conflicts
with these neighbors, attracting mercenaries first
with the promise of booty, then later through his reputation
for winning. Osman was the first in a line
of Ottoman rulers distinguished by their political shrewdness. Often prioritizing political and military
utility over ethnic or religious affinity, they expanded their influence by fighting
along certain sides when needed, and fighting against them
when the time was right. After Osman’s death his son Orhan established a sophisticated military
organization and tax collection system geared towards funding
quick territorial expansion. The Ottomans’ first major expansion
was in the Balkans, in southeast Europe. The military employed a mixture
of Turkic warriors and Byzantine and other Balkan Christian converts. They captured thousands
of young Christian boys from villages from across the Balkans, converted them to Islam, and trained
them to become the backbone of a fierce military elite force
known as the Janissaries. The captured enslaved boys could rise
to the high position of a vizier in the Ottoman government. Rulers of conquered areas were
also allowed, even encouraged, to convert to Islam and take positions
in the Ottoman government. Meanwhile, non-Muslims
who belonged to Abrahamic religions were allowed religious freedom
in exchange for a tax known as Jizye, among other strict conditions— for example, they were not allowed
to join the army. By the end of the 14th century,
the Ottomans had conquered or subordinated most of the Anatolian beyliks
as well as the Balkans. But in the first half of the 15th century, as Sultan Beyazit I focused
on Western expansion, the Central Asian ruler Timur attacked
from the east. He captured Beyazit and carted
him off in an iron cage, sparking a ten year struggle
for succession that almost destroyed the Ottoman empire. Sultan Murad II turned this trend around, but fell short of one
of his loftiest goals: capturing the Byzantine capital,
Constantinople. His son, Sultan Mehmed II,
or Mehmed the Conqueror, vowed to succeed where his father
had failed. In preparation for the attack
on Constantinople, he hired a Hungarian engineer
to forge the largest cannon in the world, used Serbian miners to dig tunnels
under the walls of the city, and ordered his fleet of ships
to be carried overland, attacking the city
from an unexpected direction. He laid siege to the city
and in the spring of 1453, Constantinople fell to the Ottomans. It would become the Ottoman capital,
known by its common Greek name, Istanbul, meaning “to the city.” By the time Mehmed II
conquered Constantinople, the city was a shadow of its former glory. Under Ottoman rule,
it flourished once again. On an average day in Istanbul, you could
hear people speaking Greek, Turkish, Armenian, Persian, Arabic, Bulgarian,
Albanian, and Serbian. Architects like the famous Sinan
filled the city with splendid mosques and other buildings commissioned
by the sultans. Through Istanbul, the Otttomans brought
commodities like coffee to Europe. They entered a golden age
of economic growth, territorial acquisition,
art and architecture. They brought together craftspeople
from across Europe, Africa, the Middle East and Central Asia to create
a unique blend of cultural innovation. Iznik ceramics, for example, were made using techniques
from China’s Ming dynasty, reimagined with Ottoman motifs. The Ottomans would continue to expand, cementing their political influence
and lucrative trade routes. The empire lasted for more than 600 years
and, at its peak, stretched from Hungary
to the Persian Gulf, from the Horn of Africa
to the Crimean Peninsula.
