The Protocols, Henry Ford, and The International Jew: Season 1, Episode 5

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Actor 1: The International  Jew, Volume One, Chapter One.   The Jew is again being singled out for critical  attention throughout the world. His emergence in   the financial, political and social spheres has  been so complete and spectacular since the war   that his place, power and purpose in the world are  being given a new scrutiny, much of it unfriendly. Persecution is not a new experience to the  Jew, but intensive scrutiny of his nature   and super-nationality is. He has suffered for  more than 2000 years from what may be called   "instinctive antisemitism" of the other races.  But this antagonism has never been intelligent,   nor has it been able to make itself intelligible.  Nowadays however, the Jew is being placed,   as it were, under the microscope of economic  observation, that the reasons for his power,   the reasons for his separateness, the reasons  for his suffering, may be defined and understood. Jeremy Shere:   Welcome to this special episode, "The  Protocols, Henry Ford, and The International   Jew," produced in collaboration between the  Association for Jewish Studies' podcast,   Adventures in Jewish Studies,  and theatre dybbuk's podcast,   The Dybbukast. I'm Jeremy Shere,  host of Adventures in Jewish Studies– Aaron Henne: And i'm Aaron Henne, artistic  director of theatre dybbuk. In this episode,   we'll be exploring Henry Ford's publication of The  International Jew: The World's Foremost Problem,   a four-volume series of books containing articles  which his Michigan-based newspaper, The Dearborn   Independent, originally published from 1920  to 1922. These writings were largely based on,   and included elements of, the notorious fraudulent  text The Protocols of the Elders of Zion,   which purported to be evidence of a global  Jewish conspiracy to dominate the world.   You've already heard a reading from  the beginning of The International Jew.   Throughout the episode, actor Joe Jordan will  continue to read selections from the text. And now, "The Protocols, Henry  Ford, and The International Jew." Actor 1: Volume 1, Chapter 10. The documents most  frequently mentioned by those who are interested   in the theory of Jewish world power, rather  than the actual operation of that power in   the world today, are those 24 documents known  as The Protocols of the Learned Elders of Zion. Jeremy: There's a good chance you've heard  of The Protocols of the Elders of Zion,   but exactly what the document supposedly revealed   and how and why such a document came to be  published in the first place are less well-known. Aaron: Since The Protocols are at the center of  the story of Henry Ford and The International Jew,   we need to spend a little time  exploring what this document is,   why it matters and where it came from. Dr. Lisa Leff:   In Europe, a lot of anti-Jewish prejudice is  really based in a Christian idea that comes from   the fact that Christianity emerges out of Judaism  and purports to replace it, to supersede it. Jeremy: This is Lisa Leff, a professor of European  and Jewish history at American University.   She says the fact that Jews and Judaism persisted  was a source of tension, and by the fourth century   CE, when Christianity became the official  religion of the Roman Empire, that tension   erupted into full-blown religious intolerance  and political oppression against Jews. By the   medieval period, many of the classic Christian  antisemitic tropes and smears had taken shape. Lisa: You start to have various forms of  anti-Jewish prejudice that really paint Jews   as devils, or, not just wrong, but somehow  preying upon Christian society, and those   prejudices are around and they erupt sometimes  into violence and sometimes into expulsion. Aaron: The narrative that Jews were devils or  deceitful figures that sucked the lifeblood from   Christian societies persisted for centuries.  The German reformation leader Martin Luther   was one of the most vehement expositors  of the anti-Jewish sentiments of his time. Actor 2: I would not have believed that a  Christian could be duped by the Jews into   taking their exile and wretchedness upon himself.  However, the devil is the God of the world and   wherever God's word is absent, he has an easy  task, not only with the weak, but also with   the strong. May God help us. Amen. –Martin  Luther, "On the Jews and Their Lies", 1543. Jeremy: One of the most famous and damaging  antisemitic myths was the blood libel,   a conspiracy theory that gained prominence in 12th  century England, when the Jews of Norwich were   accused of having murdered a Christian boy, and  a story developed claiming that this killing was   part of a ritual. Other similar accusations came  about in the years and centuries that followed. Lisa: It's a lie that you see show up in many  different geographical locations. I mean,   it's not made up out of nowhere. It's rooted  in a myth linked back to Christianity:   Jews killed Jesus in ancient times, so too do Jews   throughout the ages want to prey on innocent  Christians. And that's why it keeps on emerging. Jeremy: Other antisemitic myths  linking Jews to economic domination   and to crime spread throughout Europe,  persisting well into the 20th century. Lisa: There's the idea that Jews are connected  to what was called, in the late 19th century,   the white slave trade, or,  that is to say, prostitution   rings that often brought women across  borders. That myth remains pervasive.   And then there's the idea that Jews control things  having to do with modernity– the media, or even,   when we get to something like The Protocols, the  Jews are in a conspiracy to bring about political   forms that look like they're going to benefit  everyone but in fact benefit only the Jews. Aaron: The Protocols of the Elders of Zion arose  within this milieu of antisemitic conspiracy   theories. First published in Russia in 1903 in  installments in a newspaper called (in English   translation) The Banner, The Protocols continued  to evolve after that time. It is a document which,   as we alluded to earlier, presents itself  as the record of the secret meetings of a   group of powerful Jews, outlining their plans for  controlling society and bending it to their will. Lisa: Whenever I have students  read it, they're very surprised   that this is read as so nefarious  because, if you have no context   for reading it, you might think it's somewhat  banal. They're just talking about how they're   going to institute the basic things having  to do with modernity, like liberalism. Jeremy: But during the early 20th  century, liberalism was a new idea,   and those who read The Protocols saw  the document as evidence that Jews   were conspiring to use modern ideas  like liberalism and socialism as a   Trojan horse to infiltrate societies and  undermine their traditions and welfare. Aaron: To make that case even more  emphatically, Leff said that The Protocols   was claimed by some to have originally  been composed in the French language,   even though the first known  publication was Russian. Lisa: It's really important that it's in  French because it says this is a group, the   Elders of Zion, whose headquarters are in Paris,  right? So the idea is like this foreign group   coming from the West, and here's the  liberalism that they're bringing. France,   100 years before it, had a revolution that  became a war on the European continent that   went all the way to Russia. Russia is going to  be conquered by revolutionary or liberal ideas   from the West. So it kind of feeds  into their anti-imperial ideas. Jeremy: France was also home to  the Alliance Israélite Universelle,   an organization founded in the mid-19th century  to advance Jewish interests around the world. Lisa: So, basically, what The Protocols  looked like is they're identifying   that the Alliance, when it looks like it's  just doing good for everyone, is, in fact,   a Jewish conspiracy that's going to undermine  all the traditional values that Russians have. Aaron: The idea that Jews were  conspiring to manipulate societies   for their own selfish and greedy  interests may not have been new,   but the form in which these ideas are presented  in The Protocols was what made it unique. Lisa: You know, it used to be like, in the  medieval times or in the early modern period,   people who sought to persecute the Jews would  drag out the Talmud and show what Jews believed.   Now it's like a piece of evidence that you would  show in a courtroom or that a detective would   have come up with. And it really is appealing  to a much wider literate audience and showing   them this kind of primary source that no  one before this time of growing democracy   and growing literacy would have ever cared about.  You would never have had a document like that. Jeremy: The Protocol circulated among a  relatively small audience in Russia for   the next decade and a half until after World  War I, when Russians fleeing from the violence   and tyranny of the Bolshevik Revolution fled to  Western Europe and the document's reach grew. Lisa: Which, you know, if you think  about it in the context of the  Russian Revolution, is saying socialism is  the work of the Jews. It might seem like a   good thing. And the Jews, even– you know,  in The Protocols of the Elders of Zion,   it says in there we're going to  use this as a kind of Trojan horse.   So it says socialism may sound good to you,  but in fact, look, it's trying to destroy   our good Christian societies. And that becomes  a powerful myth even beyond what is then the   Soviet Union, even more powerfully in the West  than it had ever been in the Russian Empire. Aaron: The West included of course also the  United States where, as in Western Europe,   the first world war and the bolshevik revolution  in Russia had shaken society to the core. Jeremy: The Bolshevik Revolution took communism  from an intellectual theory to an actual working   governing philosophy in the newly formed  Soviet state, and, says Pamela Nadell,   a professor of Jewish history and Director of the  Jewish Studies program at American University,   Jews who had come to the United States from  Russia were often seen as Bolshevik sympathizers. Dr. Pamela Nadell: They get flagged as communists,  and then there's a Red Scare after the war in the   United States, and many of the people who are  targets of the Red Scare happen to be Jews. Actor 1: Volume 1, Chapter 15. The  Soviet is not a Russian, but a Jewish   institution. Nor is it the invention  of Russian Jews of the present time–   a new political device, which has been set up  as a vehicle of the ideas of Lenin and Trotsky.   It is of ancient Jewish origin; a device which  the Jews themselves invented to maintain their   distinctive racial and national life after  the conquest of Palestine by the Romans. Aaron: As you can hear, Henry Ford was  especially attuned to the supposed Jewish threat. Pamela: I would say that Ford's antisemitism gets  radicalized. I think that's the chief point that   we need to make. Growing up, he he has these kind  of standard Christian influences, but he begins   to get radicalized in the wake of World War I. Aaron: Nadell says that Ford's  antisemitism was a product of the   same antisemitic conspiracy theories that  had been prevalent in Europe for centuries   and that existed in the New World from the moment  Jews first appeared there in 1654, when Jews from   Brazil, fleeing the Inquisition, arrived in  New Amsterdam, which later became New York. Pamela: And the governor of New Amsterdam  wants to eject despicable people that he calls– Actor 2: A deceitful race; and such hateful  enemies and blasphemous of the name of Christ. Pamela: He actually tries to throw them  out of the colony. He's not successful.   If he had been successful, maybe we  wouldn't be having this conversation. Jeremy: Jews in America may not have been  brutalized to the extent that they were   in parts of Europe, but antisemitic  ideas were still common in the U.S.,   and Jews were persecuted. For example, in  1862, during the early years of the Civil War,   General Ulysses S. Grant, who accused Jews  of being involved in cotton smuggling,   signed an order expelling Jews from the  Department of the Tennessee, an administrative   division under Grant's command that included  parts of Kentucky, Mississippi, and Tennessee. Actor 3: The Jews, as a class violating every  regulation of trade established by the Treasury   Department and also department orders, are hereby  expelled from the department within 24 hours   from the receipt of this order. – General Orders,  Number 11, Ulysses S. Grant, December 17th, 1862. Pamela: The order's countermanded by President  Lincoln, but we see that example on American soil.   Then, after the Civil War, we have what  one historian calls the emergence of a   full-fledged antisemitic society. It's not  surprising. Moments of crisis, both political   and economic and social– they produce  tensions that often see antisemitism flare.   And then it takes new shapes and new forms when  we get to the latter decades of the 19th century   and the first couple of decades of the 20th,  because now the East European Jews have come in,   and there's an enormous debate in American society  about whether or not these particular foreigners   can be absorbed into America. They're  marked out as racially distinctive. Actor 1: Volume 1, Chapter 3. The American  Jew does not assimilate. It is better that he   should make it clear to Gentiles once and  for all where true Jews stand in the matter,   as when a young Jew said– "There is all the  difference in the world between an American Jew   and a Jewish American. A Jewish American is a mere  amateur Gentile, doomed to be a parasite forever." Jeremy: This growth in antisemitism was spurred  not only by the great changes taking place   in the influx of Jews from Eastern Europe,  but also by the horrifying destruction   and loss of life during the war. For many,  the war called into question the assumption   that modernity meant that Western civilization  was on a path toward wealth and prosperity. Aaron: And like in Europe, American Jews  were blamed for advancing modernity to the   benefit of themselves and to the detriment  of the nations they allegedly exploited. Actor 1: Volume 1, Chapter 13.  Certain mistaken ideas of liberalism,   certain flabby ideas of tolerance, all  of them originating at European sources,   which the Protocolists had completely  polluted, were transported to America. Aaron: American Jews felt the effects of this  antisemitism, especially in terms of social   standing and opportunities for advancement. For  example, some universities made restrictive policy   decisions, possibly in partial reaction  to the fact that by the late 19-teens,   Columbia University in New York  City had gotten a reputation   as a Jewish University due to the large  numbers of Jewish students enrolled there. Pamela: Jews are going there because  New York has half of the Jews in   America. And it's the most prestigious  Ivy League schools like Harvard and   Yale and Princeton are looking  at what happened at Columbia;   seeing that the men that they want are not going  to Colombia, and they decide that they need to   institute quotas on the number of Jewish students  because too many Jewish students are coming in. Actor 3: The antisemitic feeling  among the students is increasing,   and it grows in proportion to the increase in the  number of Jews. If their numbers should become   40% of the student body, the race feeling  would become intense. If every college in   the country would take a limited proportion  of Jews, I suspect we should go a long way   toward eliminating race feeling among students.  –Harvard President A. Lawrence Lowell, 1922. Jeremy: Around the same time, in 1921 and  again in 1924, the United States Congress   passed legislation limiting the number  of Jews who could enter the country. Actor 4: An act to limit the immigration of aliens  into the United States and for other purposes.   Be it enacted by the Senate and House of  Representatives of the United States of   America in Congress assembled, that this  act may be cited as the Immigration Act   of 1924. Numerical limitations, Section  11a: the annual quota of any nationality   shall be two percentum of the number of  foreign-born individuals of such nationality   resident in continental United States, as  determined by the United States census of 1890. Pamela: They are clearly motivated  by racial ideology. They give strong   preference to immigrants who come from the more  acceptable countries– the Anglo-Saxon countries,   essentially; Great Britain, Ireland, Germany–  and the numbers that are allowed in from both   Southern Europe and Eastern Europe, where the  Jews came from, are much much more limited. Aaron: it's against this background of growing  unease around immigration and the previously   mentioned anxiety around modernity washing  away traditional ways of life, that Henry   Ford took center stage as one of America's  most outspoken antisemites. In many ways,   Ford was a product of his time. As a child growing  up during the last decades of the 19th century,   like many American kids, he read McGuffey's  Readers, books that included selections from a   variety of sources and authors that were used  to teach elementary grade students to read. Pamela: he idolized the text of McGuffey's  Reader. But you have to understand that this   reader, that Jewish children were  also reading in their schools,   talked about perfidious Jews. It promoted  the classic anti-Jewish stereotypes. Jeremy: Connected to his experiences in World  War I, Ford's antisemitism morphed from the   garden variety practiced by many Americans  into something significantly more radical. Pamela: he at some point begins to take up some  of the lies that are told about World War I   in Europe, in Germany. He latches on to them   in part because it's suggested to him that  he needs to find something sensational that   will make his newspaper, The Dearborn  Independent, a successful newspaper. Aaron: Ford's hometown newspaper ,The Dearborn  Independent, was hemorrhaging money when he   purchased it in 1918. Ford hatched a plan. He  would use The Independent to publish articles   about the so-called "Jewish question." Beginning  in May, 1920, and for the next 91 issues,   The Independent featured lengthy articles about  a global Jewish conspiracy to sew political and   economic chaos, which included quotations from,  references to, and some in-depth analysis of The   Protocols, which by that time had already been  republished in various forms throughout Europe. Pamela: I think it's very important  to understand that by the time he   begins publishing in the United States, we  already have it published in London in 1920   as "The Jewish Peril." It's serialized in a Paris  newspaper– an antisemitic newspaper in Paris– by   then. There's a Polish edition in Warsaw. So  it's begun to make its way around the world. Jeremy: While it may have included  elements of Zionism and communism,   for the most part, The Independent's commentary  on The Protocols relied on familiar tropes,   accusing Jews of comprising a secret  cabal to strengthen themselves   by weakening the political, economic  and moral fabric of the Christian world. Actor 1: Volume 1, Chapter  10. All plans and purposes   and expectations are merged in the future  of Israel; which future, it would seem,   can only be secured by the subtle breaking-down  of certain world ideas held by the Gentiles. Aaron: To bolster this analysis,   The Independent's commentary put heavy emphasis  on the threat of Jews as revolutionaries. Actor 1: Volume 1, Chapter 20. In Russia, the  excuse was the Czar; in Germany, the Kaiser.   In England, it is the Irish question. In the  numerous South American revolutions, where the   Jews always had a ruling hand, no particular  reason was thought necessary to be given. Aaron: Now, again, these ideas were  not new. Ford was not particularly   creative or innovative regarding the  content of his antisemitic views,   but he used his power to take the  dissemination of these views to a new level. Pamela: The Dearborn Independent in 1919 had a  circulation of 72,000. From 1922 to 1924, 1925,   it had jumped to 700,000. Ford had the ability to  require his car dealers to buy copies of the paper   and to give them out when they would meet with  customers. And so he had an enormous platform   for disseminating the paper, and eventually,  while he's publishing The International Jew,   the paper becomes the second largest  circulation paper after, I think,   it's the New York Daily News. It's a local  paper, yes, but it has national distribution. Jeremy: Starting as early as 1920, Ford  republished the paper's antisemitic articles   in what came to be called The International Jew:  The World's Foremost Problem, a multi-volume   series of books that were translated into dozens  of languages and published around the world. Aaron: The reaction in the United States to the  articles that comprise The International Jew,   and to The Protocols itself, was mixed. Pamela: There are people who buy  them read, them and are convinced   that they are a true and accurate depiction  of the Jewish conspiracy to take over the   world. There are also people who denounce  them, but not necessarily ever by mentioning   Henry Ford's connection to the publication of  The Protocols. So we get a very prominent letter   signed by former presidents, and they  denounced this as a forgery and a fabrication. Actor 4: It should not be left to men and women of  the Jewish faith to fight this evil but, in a very   special sense, it is the duty of citizens who are  not Jews by ancestry or faith to strike at this   un-American and unChristian agitation. – From  a statement, "The Perils of Racial Prejudice,"   signed by Woodrow Wilson, William Howard Taft  and Warren G. Harding, among many others. Jeremy: It's important to note that as early  as 1921 The Protocols were debunked as a   fraud in The Times of London. Nevertheless,  throughout Europe and in the United States,   The Protocols gained a lot of  traction among many people. Pamela: They believed that this was true. They  would argue, no, those who expose it as a forgery,   they're in the pay of the Jews. The Jews are  helping them to expose the forgery. It's the   same thing with the Dreyfus Affair. There are so  many analogies, but the really critical issue is   that people believed it. It didn't matter  that it had been exposed as a falsehood.   So we have classic arguments within American  Jewish leadership about what do we do. I mean,   how do you go after Ford? How do you go after  such a prominent figure? Is it dangerous to   counter it and go after it because all you do  is you bring more attention to the falsehoods? Jeremy: American Jews struggled to  figure out how to respond to Ford's   aggressive dissemination  of antisemitic propaganda. Aaron: It's worth recalling that the 1920s  and 30s were a delicate era for American Jews;   a time, as we've noted, when  antisemitism was on the rise,   when the Ku Klux Klan had resurfaced as  a major political force in American life,   and when Jews were routinely barred from  particular neighborhoods, professions,   social clubs and universities. And so, while  American Jews didn't, for the most part,   always fear for life and limb, their social  standing in the United States was on shaky ground. Pamela: Ford's antisemitism by and large  does not touch the life of the woman who   picks up her kids from school at lunchtime and  feeds them a hot dog and then takes them back   to school after lunch. What does touch her life  will be when her son comes home from school   and says that somebody called him  a Christ killer on the playground,   or when that son grows up and he says,  I want to be an engineer, and now we're   into the 1930s and the 1940s, and she knows  that engineering companies do not hire Jews. Aaron: a Jewish lawyer named  Aaron Sapiro sued Ford for libel.   In 1927, the court case ended in a mistrial  and a new trial was set for later in the year.   Ford issued a statement claiming ignorance  of his newspaper's antisemitic content. Actor 1: I confess that I am deeply mortified  that this journal, which is intended to be   constructive and not destructive, has been made  the medium for resurrecting exploded fictions;   for giving currency to the so-called  Protocols of the Wise Men of Zion,   which have been demonstrated, as I learn, to be  gross forgeries; and for contending that the Jews   have been engaged in a conspiracy to control  the capital and the industries of the world,   besides laying at their door many offenses  against decency, public order and good morals.   Had I appreciated even the general nature, to  say nothing of the details of these utterances,   I would have forbidden their circulation  without a moment's hesitation. Aaron: Within two weeks of this apology,  Ford and Sapiro reached a settlement. Jeremy: It should be noted that The Dearborn  Independent's last issue was published in   December of that same year. And while the  paper no longer circulated after 1927,   the standalone volumes of The International  Jew were still widely read around the world.   In fact, Adolf Hitler greatly admired Ford and  was deeply influenced by The International Jew.   As early as 1923, a Chicago newspaper quoted  Hitler expressing admiration for Ford. Actor 5: Chicago Tribune Foreign News Service,  Munich. Heinrich Ford of Detroit will have one   hundred percent moral support of Adolf Hitler's  Deutsche Arbeiterpartei if he runs for president.   Quote: I wish that I could send some of my shock  troops to Chicago and other big American cities to   help in the election, unquote. The young leader  of the Bavarian Fascisti party said grimly. Aaron: In 1938, Hitler honored Ford with  the Grand Cross of The German Eagle,   the highest honor the Nazi regime  could bestow on any foreigner. Pamela: What I hope you will  also include is the afterlife   of the publication of The Protocols that  he initiated. Father Charles Coughlin,   who gets 80,000 letters a week– about almost  three quarters of them from Protestants not   just from Catholics– publishes excerpts of  The Protocols. He's using Ford's edition.   And it's published around the world, and, if  anything, thanks to Henry Ford, The Protocols are   far better known on the eve of World War II than  they were ever known when he was publishing them. Jeremy: Of course The Protocol's  lingering appeal goes beyond Henry Ford.   As Leff notes, like most conspiracy theories,  the document endures because it purports to   provide a clear and simple answer to the  vexing problems brought on by modernity. Lisa: I always think like, why does this  thing appeal and why does it endure?   It's because it plays off of this contradiction  that we live in an era, really since the 19th   century, where our basic guiding ideology is that  capitalism is here to make everyone prosperous,   and liberal democracy is here to make us all free  and able to participate in self-governance. And   yet, the reality is none of that has led to global  prosperity and happiness. And it's very difficult   to understand why, right? These conspiracy  theories really thrive at times where that   contradiction is the strongest and in places  where that contradiction is most deeply felt. Actor 1: Volume 4, Chapter 80. Surely it must  be understood by this time that the Jews rule,   not by reason of their brilliance or their money,  but by ideas which are not even properly Jewish,   but Babylonian. They have captured the castle  from within. They have been able to do so only   because of our ignorance of the lineage and  dignity of the stock of ideas upon which our   civilization has been founded. Our people  needs to engraft itself again on the parent   tree and draw again the sustenance  which made it great and fruitful. Aaron: Thank you for listening to this special  episode of Adventures in Jewish Studies   and The Dybbukast. Selections from The  International Jew and the statement by Henry Ford   were read by Joe Jordan. Additional readings were  performed by Joshua Wolf Coleman, Julie Lockhart,   Clay Steakley and Diana Tanaka. Editing of the  performed selections was by Mark McClain Wilson. Jeremy: Adventures in Jewish Studies is made  possible with generous support from the Salo W.   and Jeannette M. Baron Foundation. The executive  producer of the podcast is Warren Hoffman.   Jeremy Shere– that's me– is the producer  and Jen Richler is associate producer. Aaron: The Dybbukast is produced by theater  dybbuk and its launch and presentation of related   resources was made possible in part thanks  to the support of the Covenant Foundation.   The Dybbukast theme music was composed   by Michael Skloff and produced by Sam K.S. Jeremy: The Association for Jewish Studies is   the world's largest Jewish studies membership  organization featuring an annual conference,   publications, fellowships and much more for  our members, as well as public programming.   Visit associationforjewishstudies.org to learn  about joining if you're a Jewish studies scholar,   or to find out how to bring a Jewish studies  scholar to your community. If you'd like to   support the AJS and learn more about what we do,  we invite you to join our new "Friends of the AJS"   group, which will keep you informed about the  latest research, books and developments in the   field of Jewish studies. For more information  go to associationforjewishstudies.org/friends. Aaron: theater dybbuk creates provocative  performances and innovative educational   encounters inspired by Jewish thought to  illuminate universal human experience.   Please visit theatredybbuk.org/podcast where you  will find links to a wide variety of materials   which expand upon the episode's explorations. And  if you want to know more about theatre dybbuk's   work in general, please sign up for our mailing  list on that same website on the contact page.   New episodes of The Dybbukast are  available every second Friday of the month.   This episode was co-produced by The Association  for Jewish Studies and theatre dybbuk. Actor 4: Philadelphia Inquirer, December  20th, 1921. You can and should have a Ford   this Christmas. The cost is so low, the upkeep so  small and the returns in pleasure, convenience and   utility so great, that it is from every viewpoint  the most economical and satisfactory gift of all.   Your order should be placed at once for  Christmas delivery. Terms if desired.
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Length: 34min 3sec (2043 seconds)
Published: Sat Jul 23 2022
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