I'm going to talk to you about some stuff
that's in this book of mine that I hope will resonate with
other things you've already heard, and I'll try to make
some connections myself, in case you miss them. But I want to start with
what I call the "official dogma." The official dogma of what? The official dogma of all Western
industrial societies. And the official dogma runs like this: if we are interested in maximizing
the welfare of our citizens, the way to do that
is to maximize individual freedom. The reason for this is both
that freedom is, in and of itself, good, valuable, worthwhile,
essential to being human, and because if people have freedom, then each of us can act on our own to do the things
that will maximize our welfare, and no one has to decide on our behalf. The way to maximize freedom
is to maximize choice. The more choice people have,
the more freedom they have, and the more freedom they have, the more welfare they have. This, I think, is so deeply embedded
in the water supply that it wouldn't occur
to anyone to question it. And it's also deeply
embedded in our lives. I'll give you some examples of what modern progress
has made possible for us. This is my supermarket. Not such a big one. I want to say just a word
about salad dressing. A hundred seventy-five
salad dressings in my supermarket, if you don't count
the 10 extra-virgin olive oils and 12 balsamic vinegars you could buy to make a very large number
of your own salad dressings, in the off-chance that none of the 175
the store has on offer suit you. So this is what the supermarket is like. And then you go
to the consumer electronics store to set up a stereo system -- speakers, CD player,
tape player, tuner, amplifier -- and in this one single
consumer electronics store, there are that many stereo systems. We can construct six and a half million
different stereo systems out of the components
that are on offer in one store. You've got to admit
that's a lot of choice. In other domains --
the world of communications. There was a time, when I was a boy, when you could get any kind
of telephone service you wanted, as long as it came from Ma Bell. You rented your phone, you didn't buy it. One consequence of that, by the way,
is that the phone never broke. And those days are gone. We now have an almost unlimited
variety of phones, especially in the world of cell phones. These are cell phones of the future. My favorite is the middle one -- the MP3 player, nose hair trimmer,
and crème brûlée torch. And if -- (Laughter) if by some chance you haven't seen
that in your store yet, you can rest assured
that one day soon, you will. And what this does is it leads people
to walk into their stores, asking this question. And do you know what the answer
to this question now is? The answer is "no." It is not possible to buy a cell phone
that doesn't do too much. So, in other aspects of life that are much
more significant than buying things, the same explosion of choice is true. Health care. It is no longer the case
in the United States that you go to the doctor,
and the doctor tells you what to do. Instead, you go to the doctor, and the doctor tells you,
"Well, we could do A, or we could do B. A has these benefits and these risks. B has these benefits and these risks. What do you want to do?" And you say, "Doc, what should I do?" And the doc says, "A has
these benefits and risks, and B has these benefits and risks. What do you want to do?" And you say, "If you were me,
Doc, what would you do?" And the doc says, "But I'm not you." And the result is --
we call it "patient autonomy," which makes it sound like a good thing, but what it really is is a shifting
of the burden and the responsibility for decision-making from somebody who knows something --
namely, the doctor -- to somebody who knows nothing
and is almost certainly sick and thus, not in the best shape
to be making decisions -- namely, the patient. There's enormous marketing
of prescription drugs to people like you and me, which, if you think about it,
makes no sense at all, since we can't buy them. Why do they market to us
if we can't buy them? The answer is that they expect us
to call our doctors the next morning and ask for our prescriptions
to be changed. Something as dramatic as our identity has now become a matter of choice, as this slide is meant to indicate. We don't inherit an identity;
we get to invent it. And we get to reinvent ourselves
as often as we like. And that means that every day,
when you wake up in the morning, you have to decide
what kind of person you want to be. With respect to marriage and family: there was a time when the default
assumption that almost everyone had is that you got married
as soon as you could, and then you started having kids
as soon as you could. The only real choice was who, not when, and not what you did after. Nowadays, everything
is very much up for grabs. I teach wonderfully intelligent students, and I assign 20 percent
less work than I used to. And it's not because they're less smart, and it's not because
they're less diligent. It's because they are preoccupied,
asking themselves, "Should I get married or not?
Should I get married now? Should I get married later? Should I have kids first
or a career first?" All of these are consuming questions. And they're going to answer
these questions, whether or not it means
not doing all the work I assign and not getting a good grade
in my courses. And indeed they should. These are important questions to answer. Work. We are blessed, as Carl was pointing out, with the technology that enables us
to work every minute of every day from any place on the planet -- except the Randolph Hotel. (Laughter) (Applause) There is one corner, by the way, that I'm not going to tell anybody about,
where the WiFi actually works. I'm not telling you about it,
because I want to use it. So what this means, this incredible freedom of choice
we have with respect to work, is that we have to make a decision, again and again and again, about whether we should
or shouldn't be working. We can go to watch our kid play soccer, and we have our cell phone on one hip
and our Blackberry on our other hip, and our laptop, presumably, on our laps. And even if they're all shut off, every minute that we're watching
our kid mutilate a soccer game, we are also asking ourselves, "Should I answer this cell phone call? Should I respond to this email?
Should I draft this letter?" And even if the answer
to the question is "no," it's certainly going to make
the experience of your kid's soccer game very different than it would've been. So everywhere we look, big things and small things,
material things and lifestyle things, life is a matter of choice. And the world we used
to live in looked like this. [Well, actually,
they are written in stone.] That is to say, there were some choices, but not everything was a matter of choice. The world we now live in looks like this. [The Ten Commandments Do-It-Yourself Kit] And the question is:
Is this good news or bad news? And the answer is "yes." (Laughter) We all know what's good about it, so I'm going to talk
about what's bad about it. All of this choice has two effects, two negative effects on people. One effect, paradoxically, is that it produces paralysis
rather than liberation. With so many options to choose from, people find it very difficult
to choose at all. I'll give you one very dramatic
example of this, a study that was done of investments
in voluntary retirement plans. A colleague of mine got access
to investment records from Vanguard, the gigantic mutual fund company, of about a million employees
and about 2,000 different workplaces. What she found is that for every
10 mutual funds the employer offered, rate of participation
went down two percent. You offer 50 funds -- 10 percent
fewer employees participate than if you only offer five. Why? Because with 50 funds to choose from, it's so damn hard to decide
which fund to choose, that you'll just put it off till tomorrow, and then tomorrow and then tomorrow and tomorrow, and, of course, tomorrow never comes. Understand that not only does this mean that people are going to have
to eat dog food when they retire because they don't have
enough money put away, it also means that making
the decision is so hard that they pass up significant
matching money from the employer. By not participating, they are passing up
as much as 5,000 dollars a year from the employer, who would happily
match their contribution. So paralysis is a consequence
of having too many choices. And I think it makes
the world look like this. [And lastly, for all eternity,
French, bleu cheese or ranch?] (Laughter) You really want to get the decision right
if it's for all eternity, right? You don't want to pick the wrong
mutual fund or wrong salad dressing. So that's one effect. The second effect is that, even if
we manage to overcome the paralysis and make a choice, we end up less satisfied
with the result of the choice than we would be if we had
fewer options to choose from. And there are several reasons for this. One of them is, with a lot of different
salad dressings to choose from, if you buy one and it's not perfect --
and what salad dressing is? -- it's easy to imagine
that you could've made a different choice that would've been better. And what happens is, this imagined alternative induces you
to regret the decision you made, and this regret subtracts
from the satisfaction you get out of the decision you made, even if it was a good decision. The more options there are,
the easier it is to regret anything at all that is disappointing
about the option that you chose. Second, what economists
call "opportunity costs." Dan Gilbert made a big point this morning of talking about how much the way
in which we value things depends on what we compare them to. Well, when there are lots
of alternatives to consider, it's easy to imagine the attractive
features of alternatives that you reject that make you less satisfied
with the alternative that you've chosen. Here's an example. [I can't stop thinking about those other
available parking spaces on W 85th Street] If you're not a New Yorker, I apologize. Here's what you're supposed
to be thinking. Here's this couple on the Hamptons.
Very expensive real estate. Gorgeous beach. Beautiful day.
They have it all to themselves. What could be better? "Damn it," this guy is thinking, "It's August. Everybody
in my Manhattan neighborhood is away. I could be parking
right in front of my building." And he spends two weeks nagged by the idea that he is missing
the opportunity, day after day, to have a great parking space. (Laughter) Opportunity costs
subtract from the satisfaction that we get out of what we choose, even when what we choose is terrific. And the more options
there are to consider, the more attractive features
of these options are going to be reflected by us
as opportunity costs. Here's another example. (Laughter) Now, this cartoon makes a lot of points. It makes points about
living in the moment as well, and probably about doing things slowly. But one point it makes is that whenever
you're choosing one thing, you're choosing not to do other things, and those other things may have
lots of attractive features, and it's going to make what you're doing less attractive. Third: escalation of expectations. This hit me when I went
to replace my jeans. I wear jeans almost all the time. There was a time
when jeans came in one flavor, and you bought them,
and they fit like crap. They were incredibly uncomfortable, and if you wore them long enough
and washed them enough times, they started to feel OK. I went to replace my jeans
after years of wearing these old ones. I said, "I want a pair of jeans.
Here's my size." And the shopkeeper said, "Do you want slim fit,
easy fit, relaxed fit? You want button fly or zipper fly?
You want stonewashed or acid-washed? Do you want them distressed? Do you want boot cut, tapered?"
Blah, blah, blah on and on he went. My jaw dropped. And after I recovered, I said, "I want the kind that used to be
the only kind." (Laughter) He had no idea what that was. (Laughter) So I spent an hour trying on
all these damn jeans, and I walked out of the store -- truth -- with the best-fitting jeans
I had ever had. I did better. All this choice made it possible
for me to do better. But -- I felt worse. Why? I wrote a whole book
to try to explain this to myself. The reason is -- (Laughter) The reason I felt worse is that
with all of these options available, my expectations about how good
a pair of jeans should be went up. I had very low, no particular expectations
when they only came in one flavor. When they came in 100 flavors, damn it,
one of them should've been perfect. And what I got was good,
but it wasn't perfect. And so I compared what I got
to what I expected, and what I got was disappointing
in comparison to what I expected. Adding options to people's lives can't help but increase
the expectations people have about how good those options will be. And what that's going to produce
is less satisfaction with results, even when they're good results. [It all looks so great.
I can't wait to be disappointed.] Nobody in the world
of marketing knows this. Because if they did, you wouldn't all know
what this was about. The truth is more like this. [Everything was better back
when everything was worse.] The reason that everything was better
back when everything was worse is that when everything was worse, it was actually possible for people to have experiences
that were a pleasant surprise. Nowadays, the world we live in --
we affluent, industrialized citizens, with perfection the expectation -- the best you can ever hope for is that stuff is as good
as you expect it to be. You will never be pleasantly surprised, because your expectations,
my expectations, have gone through the roof. The secret to happiness --
this is what you all came for -- the secret to happiness is: low expectations. (Laughter) [You'll do] (Applause) (Laughter) I want to say -- just a little autobiographical moment -- that I actually am married to a wife, and she's really quite wonderful. I couldn't have done better. I didn't settle. But settling isn't always
such a bad thing. Finally, one consequence of buying
a bad-fitting pair of jeans when there is only one kind to buy is that when you are dissatisfied
and you ask why, who's responsible, the answer is clear:
the world is responsible. What could you do? When there are hundreds
of different styles of jeans available and you buy one that is disappointing and you ask why, who's responsible, it is equally clear that the answer
to the question is "you." You could have done better. With a hundred different kinds
of jeans on display, there is no excuse for failure. And so when people make decisions, and even though the results
of the decisions are good, they feel disappointed about them; they blame themselves. Clinical depression has exploded
in the industrial world in the last generation. I believe a significant -- not the only,
but a significant -- contributor to this explosion of depression
and also suicide, is that people have experiences
that are disappointing because their standards are so high, and then when they have to explain
these experiences to themselves, they think they're at fault. So the net result is that we do
better in general, objectively, and we feel worse. So let me remind you: this is the official dogma,
the one that we all take to be true, and it's all false. It is not true. There's no question that some choice
is better than none. But it doesn't follow from that that more choice
is better than some choice. There's some magical amount.
I don't know what it is. I'm pretty confident that we have
long since passed the point where options improve our welfare. Now, as a policy matter --
I'm almost done -- as a policy matter,
the thing to think about is this: what enables all of this choice
in industrial societies is material affluence. There are lots of places in the world, and we have heard about several of them, where their problem is not
that they have too much choice. Their problem is they have too little. So the stuff I'm talking about
is the peculiar problem of modern, affluent, Western societies. And what is so frustrating
and infuriating is this: Steve Levitt talked to you yesterday about how these expensive
and difficult-to-install child seats don't help. It's a waste of money. What I'm telling you is that
these expensive, complicated choices -- it's not simply that they don't help. They actually hurt. They actually make us worse off. If some of what enables
people in our societies to make all of the choices we make were shifted to societies
in which people have too few options, not only would those
people's lives be improved, but ours would be improved also. This is what economists call
a "Pareto-improving move." Income redistribution will make
everyone better off, not just poor people, because of how all this excess
choice plagues us. So to conclude. [You can be anything
you want to be -- no limits.] You're supposed to read this cartoon
and, being a sophisticated person, say, "Ah! What does this fish know?
Nothing is possible in this fishbowl." Impoverished imagination,
a myopic view of the world -- that's the way I read it at first. The more I thought about it, however, the more I came to the view
that this fish knows something. Because the truth of the matter is, if you shatter the fishbowl
so that everything is possible, you don't have freedom. You have paralysis. If you shatter this fishbowl
so that everything is possible, you decrease satisfaction. You increase paralysis,
and you decrease satisfaction. Everybody needs a fishbowl. This one is almost
certainly too limited -- perhaps even for the fish,
certainly for us. But the absence of some metaphorical
fishbowl is a recipe for misery and, I suspect, disaster. Thank you very much. (Applause)
I agree with what he says somewhat, but also I think one thing he's missing is that the organization of information is what makes or breaks the equilibrium.
For anyone who is interested there is also a counter opinion TED talk about how greater choice is good. Although I'm far too lazy to actually look it up for you.
Just remember everything he says can be used to support the command economy of the soviet union. If there are no better jeans available, Soviet Jeans is best jeans!
The same author just had this TED talk published today: https://www.ted.com/talks/barry_schwartz_the_way_we_think_about_work_is_broken