In the last episode, we have seen how the Turkic world
had evolved after the disintegration of the Göktürk Empire in 745 CE and focused on the Oghuz state, which
we named the most important in all of Turkish history. However, while they became the breeding ground
for new Turkish empires in the west of Asia, Turkic history did not come to an end in the east. To the contrary. By 745, the Uyghur tribe took power in Mongolia
and established a new steppe empire, one that would become as large as the ancient Xiongnu confederation. Adopting Göktürk traditions at first, they soon
turned their attention towards other cultures. In contrast to the Göktürks, the Uyghurs did not wage war
against China, but indeed cultivated a cordial relationship. The Uyghur elite also soon gave up Tengrism and converted
to other religions, especially Manicheism, which stems from Iran, and Buddhism, which spread from India. Indeed, this Khaganate seemed to be totally different
from all other Turkic states of the time, but as we will see, the Uyghur Empire was also another
step in the natural evolution of the Turkic world. But before we start, don't forget to "like"
this video, subscribe and click on the little notification bell so that you won't miss any updates. With that out of the way, let's talk about the Uyghur
Khaganate: its rise to power, internal structure and culture, religion and foreign policy, and most importantly,
let us try to grasp its lasting legacy on Turkic history. The Uyghur Khaganate was a Turkic empire in Central Asia
and Mongolia succeeding the second Turkic Khaganate. The Uyghurs, originally part of the Doku Oghuz (Nine Oghuz)
Confederation, were a group of nine Turkic tribes that played a significant role in Central Asian geopolitics. During both the first and second Göktürk
empires, the Doku Oghuz were crucial in regard to the inner stability of the empire. As they used to be part of the Tiele (Tölös)
Confederation originally, they came into contact with Bumin, the state founder, very early. As Bumin subjugated the Tiele Turks in 546, he
also brought the Uyghurs under his command and they helped him defeat the Rouran Khaganate in 552 to
establish the Göktürk Empire shortly thereafter. But a few decades later, the Tiele would bring trouble. As the warring Göktürk princes of the second generation
were, just for once, united and advancing into the inner part of China, a revolt of the Tiele broke out. This made Tardush, one of the commanders and the
King of the West, retreat from the battlefield. The front lines of the Göktürks collapsed just a bit later. When in 630 CE the last Göktürk Khagan Illig was
forced to resign from the throne, certain tribes of the Tiele had played their part in this. As a consequence of the power vacuum, the Chinese
Tang Empire subjugated large parts of the steppe and held the Göktürk Ashina Dynasty hostage. When 50 years later, Gokturk princes tried to
regain their independence from the Chinese, the aforementioned tribes once again stood in their way. Now known as the Dokuz Oghuz, which would simply mean nine
tribes, they helped the Chinese quell the Göktürk Rebellion. A year later, Kutluk Ilterish again revolted in the name
of the entire Ashina family, and this time succeeded. One of his first actions was to subjugate the Dokuz
Oghuz, which now resided north of the Gobi Desert. But the Doku Oghuz would once again turn against the
Göktürks and, in the latter's weakest moment, attack them within a coalition of Basmyl Turks and Chinese. In 744, the second Göktürk Empire was destroyed. One particular tribe called "Huihe" by
the Chinese rose to dominate the region. It defeated its allies, the Basmyls, and also drove away
the Karluks, also a Turkic confederation, into Kazakhstan. With the Göktürks and Karluks gone, and the Basmyls
ceasing to exist, a large power vacuum provided the Huihe with the opportunity to assert their dominance. Now, Mongolia and its surroundings were ruled by
this tribe that later came to be known as Uyghur. Thus, the Gokturk Khaganate was replaced by the
Uyghur Khaganate in 745 CE, which was hence fourth ruled by the new Khagan of the steppe, Bilge
Boyla Khagan, a former commander of the Göktürks. In essence, the Uyghur had been as Turkic
as all other aforementioned tribes. However, they used to be involved in
anti-Göktürks conflicts quite often. The suspicion that they were responsible for the
fall of the Göktürks is certainly not farfetched. However, we must assert that the second Göktürk
empire was from the very beginning quite fragile, as the Khagans of the Ashina were busy constantly
subjugating the tribes of the empire from anew. The Uyghurs had not wanted to become vassals of the Ashina
again, and now they got the opportunity to not only become independent, but also establish their own rule over all other
tribes, the tide had turned in favor of the Dokuz Oghuz... The Uyghur Khaganate was governed by a
highly organized administrative system with the Khagan, the Supreme ruler, at the top. The Khagan was sacrosanct, blessed by the almighty
sky God Tengri, and responsible for making key decisions and maintaining control over the
empire, which was divided into several provinces. Each province was governed by a local leader known
as a "Tudun" who was appointed by the Khagan. These local leaders were responsible for managing the affairs
of their provinces and ensuring the collection of taxes. The administration was supported by a bureaucracy
that included various officials who were responsible for implementing the Khagan's policies
and maintaining law and order within the empire. Basically, the Uyghur had inherited the political
system of the Göktürks, albeit against the latter's will, and for quite some time business
in the Eastern Eurasian steppe continued as usual. Uyghur society was organized into a hierarchical
structure based on social status and tribal affiliation. The Uyghur Elite comprised the ruling family
and representatives from the nine original tribes of the Dokuz Oguz Confederation. Below the elite were the commoners who were primarily
involved in agriculture, trade and craftsmanship. The imperial economy was based on agriculture
and trade facilitated by the Silk Road. Farmers, traders and artisans
formed the backbone of the economy. At the bottom of the social hierarchy were the slaves and
prisoners of war who were used as laborers and servants. Speaking of the Silk Road, the Uyghur Empire
was known for its trade connections and cultural exchanges with different regions, and the Sogdians
played an important role in these exchanges. In reminiscence of the Sogdian-Turkic Turkic synthesis of the
sixth and seventh centuries under Göktürk rule, the Uyghur also favored integrating Sogdian elements into the Khaganate. The Sogdians were a people who lived in the region of
Sogdia, which is modern day Uzbekistan and Tajikistan. They were known for their trading skills and their
ability to speak multiple languages, which made them ideal intermediaries in the Silk Road trade. Thus, they played an important role in the empire's
economy, particularly in the trade of luxury goods such as silk, spices, and precious metals. The Uyghur had taken advantage of their strategic
position by promoting trade and acting as intermediaries between the east and the west. This greatly enriched the empire
just like during the Göktürk era. Nonetheless, the many people who inhabited
Uyghur lands stayed nomadic or semi nomadic. The Empire controlled the fertile Orkhon
Valley, which was the main agricultural center where wheat, barley, and millet were grown. The Uyghurs were also skilled in animal husbandry,
raising horses, camels, sheep, and goats. There was one factor that facilitated the Uyghur people
becoming sedentary over time, and that was religion. As the Uyghurs built a capital on the site of the old
Imperial Center of the Gokturk Empires, near or in the sacred place we know as Ötüken, they invited many
Sogdians into this city, which was called Ordu-Baliq:. City of the Army. Ordu-Baliq existed 27 kilometers north of Karakorum,
the capital of the Mongol Empire some 500 years later. The urban area of Ordu-Baliq had three main parts. The largest and central part consisted of numerous
buildings surrounded by a continuous wall. Ruins of a large number of temples and
houses were to be found south of the center. The ruler's residential palace, also ringed by walls on all
sides, stood in the northeastern part of the town where a Russian archeologist once discovered a green granite monument
with a statue of a dragon perched at the top, bearing a runic inscription in old Turkic that glorified the Khagans. Not just the Uyghur Khagans, but also the first
Göktürk rulers, Bumin and Istemi, interestingly. In any case, this capital over time became a fully
fortified commandry and commercial entropeui typical of the central points along the length of the Silk Road. The well preserved remains show fortified
walls and lookout towers, stables, military and commercial stores and administrative buildings. There are also remains of a water drainage system. Archeologists established that certain areas were allotted
for trade and handcrafts, while in the center of the town were palaces and temples including a monastery. The trade area was full of merchants and
traders from all over Eurasia, including from China, Persia, Korea, Sogdia, and Byzantium. It is precisely here where the Sogdian population
soon concentrated and seemingly tried to convert their Uyghur allies to Manicheism. The Uyghur Turks, just as all other Turkic peoples, used to
be adherence to Tengrism, the aforementioned belief in Tengri. In the Xiongnu and Göktürk states, Tengrism
had been the official state religion. However, the Uyghurs soon adopted Manicheism, which was,
similar to Tengrism, a syncretic religion that blended elements of Christianity, Zoroastrianism and Gnosticism. The religion was founded by the Persian prophet
Mani in the 3rd century CE, and was popular in Central Asia during the 8th and 9th centuries. Manicheism emphasized a dualistic cosmology that saw the world
as a battleground between good and evil, with the ultimate goal being the liberation of the soul from the material world. Not all approved this new religion,
especially the first Khagans of the Empire. But over time, the elite converted. The adoption of Manicheism by the Uyghur
Khaganate was significant in several ways. Firstly, it reflected the empire's cosmopolitan outlook, and
its openness to different religious beliefs and practices. Secondly, Manicheism played a crucial role in
the development of Uyghur literature and art. The Uyghurs were known for their artistic skills and
craftsmanship, and the adoption of Manicheism provided them with a rich source of inspiration for their
literature and art, which you can take a look at right now. They created exquisite wall paintings, sculptures,
and manuscripts, many of which have been preserved in archeological sites such as the
Kızıl Caves of the 1000 Buddhas in Xingjian. The Uyghurs also developed a system of
writing based on the Sogdian alphabet, which became the official script of the Empire. This script was later adapted to create the
old Uyghur alphabet, which served as the basis for the modern Uyghur writing system. In essence, the Uyghurs had fully adopted the political system
of the Göktürk Empire, but on a cultural level, they more and more distanced themselves from their Turkic kin instead
of staying true to their ancestors religion and traditions. They became followers of foreign belief systems. The Uyghur also stopped using the old Göktürk
script and instead used Sogdian writing styles, which stemmed from the Iranian sphere of influence. Lastly, as they founded more and more cities,
the Uyghurs also became in part sedentary. The Göktürks had once also nearly
converted to another religion. In their case, it was Buddhism, and they even
nearly established their own large capital consisting not of Yurts, but of houses. However, the wise Tonyukuk had warned Bilge Khagan, because by
doing so, he foretold, the Turks would also adopt the secular traditions of their sedentary neighbors and become weak. A Turk's place was in the Eurasian
steppe, not in the warmer south. Little did Tonyukuk know that, while he could prevent
the Göktürks from becoming "weak", the Uyghurs just a few decades later would do everything he had tried to prevent. Most importantly, the Uyghurs were not enemies of
the Chinese, the old rivals of both Göktürk Empires. Instead of confrontation the Uyghurs were interested
in cordial relations, much to the dismay of their Turkic and Sogdian kin who needed their help. Over a span of nearly 200 years, the Ashina ruling Dynasty
of both the first and second Göktürk empires had been in constant clash towards at least one Chinese Dynasty. There used to be cooperation between the Göktürks on the
one hand and certain Chinese empires on the other hand. The Western Wei and later Northern Zhou had
cultivated excellent economic and political relations with the Ashina, and the former even helped Bumin
defeat the Rouran and become Khagan of the steppe. However, once China was unified, after nearly
400 years of turmoil, perceptions began to shift. Both the Sui Empire and especially the Tang Empire,
the latter of which lasted three centuries, were hostile towards the Göktürks and the Turks in general. But not withstanding all the humiliation that the
Chinese had inflicted towards the Turkic peoples even far into the west of Central Asia, into Turkistan, some Turkic tribes remained open towards a partnership
with the Tang Dynasty, namely the Uyghur and the Kyrgyz. While the Kyrgyz were very pragmatic in that regard and did
not like the Uyghurs leave behind old Turkic traditions at all, the Uyghurs used Chinese interference to overthrow the
Göktürks in 744 CE, and after becoming rulers themselves remained friendly towards the sedentary neighbors. Exhibit A: the An Lushan Rebellion. It took place from 755 to 763 CE. The rebellion was led by the eponymous An Lushan, a
military general of Turkic and Sogdian origin, who held significant power and commanded a large army
in the northeastern frontier of the Tang empire. He declared himself emperor, eager to
overthrow the then ruling Chinese Emperor. Just a decade earlier, Eurasia had entered a period of
major political turmoil with the regional empires generally suffering a major rebellion, revolution, or dynastic change. In this year, the second Göktürk Khaganate was
replaced by the Sogdian-influenced Uyghur Empire. This was the first of several revolutionary events,
either led by or intimately connected with the merchants and tradespeople involved with the international
commerce, often referred to as the Silk Road. For example, three years later, the Abbasids began
their rebellion against the Umayyad Caliphate in Chorasan, resulting in the proclamation
of a new Abbasid caliphate in the year 750. This rebellion also seems to have been organized by
merchants and persons identifying themselves as Sogdians. As an An Lushan was in part Sogdian from his father's side, his mother was a member of the Ashina Dynasty by the
way he stood in close contact with the merchants. Though his bigger motivation might have been to simply
gain more power by becoming emperor over all of China instead of remaining a mere general under Tang subjugation. While An Lushan himself was assassinated in 757, his
followers and allies resisted for six more years. Eventually the tide turned for the loyalist Imperial
troops thanks in part to Uyghur intervention. An Lushan had called the Sogdians
and also Turkic tribes for help. But as many Turkic tribes had been displaced and migrated to
the West, only the Uyghur Empire remained as a potential ally. The Uyghurs, in turn, then ruled by El Etmish Bilge Khagan, sent assistance
to the Chinese and lent them several thousand Turkic .Warriors in 757, both the Capitol Chang'an and Luoyang were
captured in a joint effort by Chinese and Turkic forces. The Abbasids had also sent a few thousand
men to help the Chinese quell the rebellion. After a few years, the last rebels were tried and executed. By 763, the An Lushan nightmare was over. This conflict resulted in widespread destruction,
significant loss of life, and a decline in the Tang Dynasty power and influence in the long term. But for our story, the most important
factor is the stance of the Uyghurs. Known to have been massively influenced by the Sogdians,
and thus standing in line of tradition with the Göktürks, the Uyghurs nevertheless decided to stand on China's side. What could have been a chance to avenge the many
massacred and enslaved Turkic Peoples of the seventh Century turned into an opportunity of enrichment. Because in exchange for their support, the Tang
Dynasty offered the Uyghur tributes such as silk, which helped boost the Khaganates economy. It must be stressed that the Uyghur of that
time chose profit over values and principles. Would history have developed differently if the Uyghurs
had acted on behalf of their Turkic-Sogdian relative? We have to keep in mind that of course, Turkic
tribes were never really united for very long. The idea of a Turkic unity in ancient times is an illusion. There was, however, one time period where literally all
Turkic tribes known to us were indeed united under one banner, ruled by one family, and that was during the
first Turkic Empire, specifically from 560 to 580 CE. The Uyghurs had managed to create an empire that
was politically stable and possessed military might. Why did they not help An Lushan and attack the Chinese? Even the Göktürk princes of the third generation, the
unholy generation if you ask us, pulled it together, stopped their own civil war and just for once attacked
the Chinese during the Civil War in 581 to 584, trying to take advantage in the name of all Turkic people. It seems that the Uyghurs did not think that way. Stemming from the tribe that first broke away from
the Tiele Federation, then twice helped bring the Göktürk Dynasty down, these people likely did not
have the fate of other Turkic peoples in mind. The Chinese, of course, were happy about this situation
as the Uyghurs were a bulwark against other turkic tribes. As long as the Uyghurs reigned Supreme, neither
Turks nor Mongols would invade and raid Chinese villages on the border frontier that easily. It was in the interest of the Chinese
to have the Uyghur Khaganate intact. Yet, the empire fell in 840. The Kyrgyz, one of the most ancient Turkic people, invaded
the Uyghur Khaganate and destroyed its central authority. The fragmentation of the empire led to the
emergence of smaller Uyghur states, some of which continued to exist until the 12th century. The Uyghurs fled south and the ruling Dynasty established
the Ganzu Uyghur Kingdom, which lasted until the year 1036. In 843, another group founded a Kingdom in Qocho,
which is known as the city of Karakhoja today. They founded their capital in Beshbalik, and many converted
to Manicheism or Buddhism or became Nestorian Christians. Today's Uyghurs that live in the autonomous Xinjiang
region in the People's Republic of China are generally believed to have descended from the ancient Uyghurs. However, among today's Uyghurs are also many other Turkic
and non-Turkic peoples that were assimilated over the centuries, especially in the kingdoms of Cocho and Ganzu. Evaluating the Uyghur Empire in
an isolated matter is fairly easy. A steppe empire centered in the Orkhon Valley, it
ruled over large parts of the Eastern Steppe Belt and was important in terms of art, trade, military,
and political affairs of the 8th and 9th centuries. However, in the context of Turkic
states, where should we rank them? How could we compare the Uyghurs to the many other
empires like the Xiongnu, Seljuks, or even Ottomans? We here at Khan's Den firmly believe that such comparisons
are unfair to all states involved, and should be limited to states that more or less existed during the same time period. Thus, it is only natural to compare
the Uyghurs to the Göktürks. The Göktürks not only ruled over two empires that
were also larger, but they further created states that were transcontinental, Eurasian, with the
first Göktürk empire spanning two continents. The Ashina had therefore united all Turkic peoples
and also cemented Turkic identity in world history. The Uyghurs, on the other hand, were quick to give
up parts of their heritage, and they were never interested in expanding any further than Kazakhstan. The ambitions of the Uyghurs and Göktürks were different. Whether that is a bad thing or not, we don't want to question. We do, however, argue that we all must recognize
once again the importance of the Göktürk Khaganate. The Uyghurs deserve their place in Turkic
history, but some of their decisions surely led a bitter taste in the mouth of our producer. Speaking of which, thank you for watching. Khan's Den is owned by Emre, who is responsible for
research, video production, and distribution of all documentaries and the podcast, which is available
on Spotify, Amazon Music and Apple Podcasts. To keep all of these projects going, Emre has a Patreon page. You can either become a member there or
here on YouTube and support this cause. See you next time.
