[narrator] I'm Christopher Clark,
Cambridge historian. I was born in Australia. For Europeans, that's practically
the other end of the world. But the European continent
and its incredible diversity always fascinated me. Even in the far-off country
where I grew up, I was always aware
that so much of our world has its roots in Europe. And modern Europe is one of the greatest achievements
in human history. I want to share the grand saga
of this continent, and in the process, I hope to rediscover
its wonders for myself. Where does Europe start?
And where does it stop? I'm at the southwestern-most point
of the continent. From here on, there's just water.
Next stop: America. Luís de Camões,
the national poet of Portugal, described this cape in the 16th century
in these words: "Aqui onde a terra se acaba
e o mar começa." "Where the earth ends
and the ocean begins." In fact, most of Europe
is surrounded by water. Europe is a continent in name only. In reality it's a peninsula, and its history
is deeply shaped by this fact. That history begins 135 million years ago. Actually, Europe as we know it
isn't really all that old, in a geological sense. In the beginning,
all the continents are one. Then the world is set in motion. Land masses break off,
drift apart and reunite, creating mountains and rivers
in the process. Bit by bit,
the continent as we know it today begins to take shape. Ice masses form fjords, mountains unfold. The lava flows we can still see today
give us an inkling of Earth's incredible power
to create and reshape. And at some point, these elementary forces will produce a denser array
of unique cultures and peoples than anywhere else on the planet. How did it all begin? Asia, to which this rather small continent
is a kind of appendix, has always been the gateway to Europe, also for the first humans to arrive here. But who were the first Europeans?
And where were they from? It's during an ice age
that the first people leave Africa to conquer the rest of the world. A sheet of ice, kilometers thick,
covers the continent where, today, we find cities
like London, Berlin and Warsaw. But Homo sapiens will not be deterred. From what we know today, it seems that they traveled
to the continent via the Middle East, the Levant
and Romania. And slowly,
it begins to grow warmer in Europe. The Ice Age is coming to an end. This is where the first migrants
come into contact with the Neanderthals and begin to mix with them. Even today, all Europeans
have a bit of Neanderthal in them. By 30,000 years ago,
the Neanderthals have died out, and the Homo sapiens, the "wise human,"
has taken over. They hunt and gather,
live in groups of varying sizes and spread out
across massive swaths of territory, often in rocky areas with caves, such as southern France
and northern Spain. It's around this time that the intellectual world
of the early Europeans actually begins to take shape. The depths of the caves are sacred places
for these early peoples, prehistoric cathedrals where they feel
the presence of the supernatural world. But above all,
the caves offer protection and warmth, absolute necessities that allow
these early Europeans to survive. Here, we can see the first evidence
of the ancient Europeans. I'm in the Chauvet Cave
in southern France, and I can hardly believe that people painted something like this
30,000 years ago. The talent and precision
of these early European artists are staggering. When Pablo Picasso first saw
the cave paintings of Stone-Age humans, he was shocked: "We've learned nothing since then,"
he said. The people of the Ardèche Valley
in modern-day France created these first European works of art
nearly 40,000 years ago, and they did it for eternity,
probably without realizing it. How could they know
that we would one day admire the woolly rhinoceroses, cave lions,
mammoths and bison that they drew
with such energy and elegance? A quantum leap in human history,
Homo sapiens became a cultural being. Humans reflected on their own existence,
observed and recorded their environment and invented a new form of communication. A bison with eight legs,
like a time-lapse image. We can't know for sure, but they were probably
supposed to suggest movement: a kind of Stone-Age cinema. These works are among
the oldest expressions of human creativity anywhere on Earth. A kind of cultural big bang. We have no idea what brought it about. All human societies have produced art, and there have always been moments
in which something new emerged. What was special about Europe was the tension
between memory and renewal, between continuity and rupture. Michelangelo may have imitated the Greeks,
but he also created something new, something that had never been seen. Landscapes, objects and people
came to be seen in new ways. Art rebelled against tradition
without escaping from its authority. Images and objects from Asia and Africa
enriched the visual repertoire. Boundaries were tested and breached. Freed from the obligation
to depict anything real, paintings took on a life of their own. And these astonishing
moments of creativity would have been unthinkable without the diversity
of the cultures on this continent and the cultural competition between them. It would be difficult to underestimate
the spiritual effect these caves had on the people of that era. We're now fairly certain that some caves
were used specifically for rituals. Humans already lived in groups
at this point, and they divided up their work
among themselves. It's easy to imagine
that during the winter, when the opportunities
for hunting and gathering were limited, they would have honed
their cultural skills. And that's how we get the Lion Man, carved from a mammoth tusk
35,000 years ago. Half man, half lion.
Perhaps even a demigod. It began in caves
but soon spread into the world beyond: the first outdoor venues
of collective worship sprang up in multiple locations
across Europe around 5,000 years ago. The first settled peoples
positioned enormous boulders in circles, creating sites like Stonehenge. They were aligned
with the course of the sun and primarily served as observatories. Transporting and setting up the stones must have been
an incredibly challenging task for the people of that era. They had to be highly organized and must have developed specialized skills
and technologies for the job. Ancestor worship
played an important role here. They wanted to immortalize
the world of their forbears in stone for all eternity. Cults and strictly defined rituals seem to have been the glue
that held these early societies together. Of course,
we need to see this in perspective. While the Europeans
were positioning boulders, the Egyptians were building pyramids. Stone monuments sprang up
from Spain to Sweden and Poland to France. For the first time, these megaliths
mark a visible commonality among the various peoples of Europe. But at the same time, the first cities are already appearing
in modern-day Iraq and Syria. Europe is still a developing country. In the eastern Mediterranean,
on the other hand, things are starting to get interesting. Myths and legends are being woven. Why is Europe called "Europe"?
Well, the answer lies here in Greece. A myth relates that Zeus,
father of the gods, fell in love with beautiful Europa, daughter of the Phoenician king of Sidon,
in today's Lebanon. Europa immediately fell in love
with the bull, or rather Zeus, and climbed onto his back. Together, they swam to Crete. There, the bull took human form and asked the beautiful maiden
to be his queen. The part of the world where she lived
would forever bear her name. It's a myth, of course, but, like all myths,
it contains a kernel of truth because the origins of Europe
really did lie outside this continent, in Asia Minor, the Levant and Africa. From the very beginning, Europe was a place
where cultures met and mixed, and this would be one of the keys
to its power and creativity. It all started on Crete. The islanders were gifted seafarers
and traders. Crete became
Europe's first commercial power, crafting an impressive trade network that stretched
across the entire Mediterranean to Egypt and Mesopotamia. The Cretans grew olives and exported the valuable oil
to places like Egypt. King Minos, who, according to legend,
was the son of Zeus and Europa, commissioned the construction
of a magnificent palace in Knossos, over 3,000 years ago. Today, it still bears witness to the golden age
of both the island and the Minoans, the first advanced civilization in Europe. Europe's first kingdom emerges here. But there are many indications
that the Minoans aren't particularly interested in
personally exercising power. From everything we know
about this mysterious culture, it appears that leaders and heroes
didn't play an especially eminent role. The first European laws and courts
have their roots in Minoan society. Their legal codes governed everything
from family law to criminal law, literally letter by letter. The Minoans were the first Europeans
who could read and write. They adopted their writing system
from the Phoenicians. This Middle Eastern alphabet is the mother
of all European writing systems. The Minoans even stamped these symbols
in clay on the famous Phaistos Disk, nearly 3,000 years before
Johannes Gutenberg invented modern printing. The meaning of the ancient symbols
may have been forgotten over time, but the Greeks ultimately
based their own alphabet on the Minoan writing system. And both our Latin alphabet
and the Cyrillic eastern European alphabet have their origins in Greek. For centuries to come,
Europe's path would be shaped by the legacy of ancient Greece. What was so special about Greece? Well, partly it was
a question of geography. The Greeks were scattered
in some 1,500 cities, the "poleis," around the shores
of the eastern Mediterranean and the Black Sea. The terrain of the Greek mainland,
crisscrossed by mountains and ravines, favored small communities but also obliged them
to trade and negotiate with each other. Not all of the cities were democracies. Some were ruled by oligarchs
or by tyrants. But one city established
a system of government that would leave a deep imprint
on world history. Nothing compares to Athens
in its golden age. Many of the traits
that define modern Europe can be found here. The Greeks' world
consists of numerous gods, to whom they dedicate
the temples they build, but also of brilliant thinkers, who spend their days
investigating earthly concerns. The grand Parthenon temple
on the Acropolis is the most beautiful representation of what the streets and squares
of ancient Athens brought forth into the world: architecture, science, philosophy, art,
literature and also political thought. Athens isn't ruled by a king
but by the people, for the first time
in the continent's history. All men share responsibility
for the decisions that affect everyone. Women don't yet play a political role,
but it's a start. Democracy is born. Calm down! All opposed to the proposal,
raise your hands! And, all in favor, raise your hand now! [Clark] Perhaps we could learn
a thing or two from the ancient Athenians. They used a voting machine
known as a "kleroterion" to fill political offices. Men were elected by lottery so there was no opportunity for corruption
or for lobbying. Leonidas Linos, you are elected. [Clark] But all of this
didn't happen overnight. Democracy in Athens developed slowly,
step-by-step, and it was repeatedly reformed. The Athenian democracy possessed
three institutions that remain crucial to the political organization
of any free society: a basic law, or constitution,
dating back to the fifth century B.C.; a parliament, the "ecclesia," where matters of state
were discussed by the citizenry; and a system of independent courts. And these performed their
tasks in magnificent public buildings located at the heart of the city. The climate must have helped because a lot of the public life
of this culture took place outdoors. The Athenian democracy was not invincible. Just two centuries after its inception, it was terminated by the rising power
of the Macedonian kingdom. But the fact that the democracy of Athens ultimately failed to hold out
against a military dictatorship does nothing to diminish
its world-historical importance. What was it Winston Churchill
told the British parliament? "Democracy
is the worst form of Government except for all those other forms
that have been tried from time to time." In that sense, it's easy to understand
why Greek architecture is still reflected in so many parliament buildings
in Europe today. Symbols representing
the power of the people, even if the Athenian form of government has little in common with our modern
representative democracy. This is where things come full circle. The idea of democracy,
the balance of power, is supposed to be reflected
in the golden ratio of the buildings. It all traces back
to the Greeks' pursuit of perfection. Democracy would later become one of the founding principles
of modern Europe and the cornerstone
of this community of nations. Of course, we shouldn't idealize
Athenian democracy. Only free, male Athenians
held citizenship. Women and slaves
had no political rights at all. And this democracy, like all democracies,
was an untidy and open-ended affair. The nobility were always trying to expand
their privileges and even, on occasion,
to overturn the system. The power of money was another problem: when the wealthiest citizens
used their cash to secure power, plutocracy loomed. And then there was the power
of the public word. Demagogues - the literal translation
means "leader of the people" - was the name the Greeks gave
to those gifted orators who sought to sway the masses
in their decisions. This didn't have to be a bad thing. When demagogues placed themselves
in the service of the political system, they could do great good. But as soon as they placed
their own interests, or those of a particular faction,
above those of the city, they became a threat to the general good. And today, in an ever-more complex world, the demagogues are prospering once again
in Europe. The marathon is the most democratic
sporting event of all time. Young, old, fat, thin.
Anyone can join in the run. Millions of people around the world
catch marathon fever every year. This long-distance run
is named after a small town in Greece. The first marathon runner of history
was completely alone. His name was Philippides
and he ran the approximately 40 kilometers from the town of Marathon
to the marketplace in Athens in order to announce
the victory of the Greeks over a much larger Persian army
in a decisive battle. It's said that he then collapsed dead
on the ground, but not before warning the Athenians
that the remaining Persian forces were swiftly approaching the city. And so, 490 years
before the Christian era, Athenian soldiers move into position. Here's the story. The global superpower of the time,
the expansive Persian Empire, feels threatened by the rival cities
of Corinth, Sparta and Athens. The Greeks are united
by this common enemy, and they react together,
with a preemptive strike. For the first time,
they feel like Europeans, and even call their homeland "Europe." It is an identity born of a shared fate. Athens defeats the Persians.
The war continues. But the future of the continent
is decided in the dust of Marathon. The victory at Marathon was a defining moment
for the Greek democracy, a sign of what could be achieved
through unity and self-confidence. Then, as so often in its history, the destiny of democracy
was tied up with war. Above all, the victory at Marathon showed that deeper popular participation
in political life can actually heighten
the striking power of a state. And the gods, too,
were granted their share: in its gratitude for the victory,
the city sacrificed 500 goats every year until the number of slaughtered goats
matched the number of Persian dead. The story of that victory
is classic Hollywood blockbuster material. Back then,
it was immediately adapted for the stage. That's right: Athens is also the birthplace
of the entertainment industry. The Greeks have loved heroic tales
since the days of Homer, and the story of the Persian Wars
is no exception. Actors step into the role
of their old enemy and relive a victory
that all Greeks are proud of. Be stern and remember:
chin up and chest out! [Clark] Aeschylus,
a veteran of the Battle of Marathon, is the author of this thrilling work. [man] It's your turn now. [Clark] With support
from the young politician Pericles, the playwright hopes to win
the theater competition that the Athenians hold every year
in honor of Dionysus, the god of wine and mirth. Aeschylus himself hadn't exactly covered himself in glory
on the battlefield, but this play would immortalize his name. The playwright portrays
the senselessness of war, which leads to nothing but horror,
despair, death and grief. He tells the story
from the perspective of the losing side, without denigrating the Persians
for their loss. In this way,
he hopes to educate his audience. [crowd cheering enthusiastically] And the Athenians understand his message. The Persians won first prize. It's the oldest surviving theatrical work
in the world. From tragedy to comedy, the Greeks showed the world
the meaning of good entertainment. The narrative forms established then
have survived the test of time. And the play commemorating the event
that gave rise to the idea of Europe, the Persian Wars, is still regularly performed on stage
even today. Art, architecture, political thought: society in ancient Greece
was open and sophisticated, and over the centuries
Europe has drawn again and again from this cultural wellspring. So, this is where the roots
of our European civilization lie. But outside of Hellas, no one else
yet identified themselves as European. So how did the ancient Greeks
disseminate their culture? And how did Greek culture
become European culture? In the fourth century
before the birth of Christ, Macedonian king Alexander,
later known as Alexander the Great, conquers all the Greek city-states,
with the exception of Sparta. He wants to spread Greek culture
around the world. He creates a global empire in Asia, which he feels is more promising terrain
than the European continent. The Greeks, on the other hand, establish colonies
around the Mediterranean, including Massalia,
today known as Marseille. This is where explorer Pytheas sets sail
in the fourth century before Christ. A contemporary of Alexander the Great,
Pytheas wants to explore northern Europe, and his discoveries will revolutionize
the Greeks' view of the world. Up to that point, they had believed
that the best and most intelligent people could only be found in the Mediterranean. Then, Pytheas met the Celts,
and a new power appeared on the scene. The Celts are not a unified people,
and they don't have an empire. Instead, they live in numerous,
different tribal groups, but they have shared customs, and when they feel threatened,
they close ranks. That sounds almost European,
you might say. And in fact, in the first century B.C., the Celts expand their tribal territory from central Europe
to Anatolia and Britannia. Their culture continues to grow
and develop. The north is full of nothing
but backward barbarians, the Greeks think. They believe that the cold and fog
of the north has made the people sluggish. Still, they give the northerners
a flattering name: "the Celts" or "the brave ones." The Greeks are also interested
in doing business. They have olives and wine
to trade with the Celts for amber and tin. But first, they need
to introduce the Celts to Greek culture. A few gifts, mainly gold,
help to solidify their friendship. Pytheas, the explorer from Marseille,
knows how important this is. He was the first Greek to reach the northern edge
of the known world at the time. The Celts
are more than just strong warriors. They are also gifted metalworkers, and slowly, they develop a taste
for the Mediterranean lifestyle, especially for wine. This vessel, as tall as an adult,
came from Greece and was found in the tomb
of a Celtic chieftainess. Ubiquitous drinking horns are further evidence
of the Celts' unquenchable thirst. The Celts were the ones who built
the first cities north of the Alps. Around 150 of them, in fact. One of the most famous is the Heuneburg, located in modern-day southern Germany. It's the oldest known
Celtic settlement north of the Alps to be mentioned in literature. Even Greek historian Herodotus
was interested in this city. Built in 600 B.C., the Heuneburg was the residence
of Celtic chieftains, with clever fortifications
to fend off enemies. The Celts carefully organized their lives
behind the high walls. They had their own coins
and a system for the division of labor. Up to 10,000 people
lived in this form of ancient city. From here, the Celts increasingly traded
with the Greeks and with Pytheas's hometown, Marseille. The Celts weren't exactly methodical
when it came to occupation and conquest. But in 387 B.C.,
they briefly conquered Rome: a traumatic experience that remained a vivid memory
for the city's ensuing generations. The "Imperium Romanum,"
the Roman Empire, isn't an exact model for our modern concept of Europe,
of course. But today's Europe
certainly has many of its roots in Rome. The idea of the republic, the laws,
the architecture. In many areas, the Romans were able to build
on what the Greeks had created. The Pantheon is a good example here: behind the Greek-style facade is one
of the oldest and largest domes in Europe, and it's made of cement. Both of those things Roman inventions. In all areas of life, the Romans looked to the Greeks
for inspiration. But they wanted to improve on things,
as well. The ambitious Gaius Julius Caesar
is no exception. He sees a bright future for himself. He dreams of being a conqueror,
like Alexander the Great. But before he can make history,
he has to tread the career path of a Roman civil servant -
a long, hard slog. He spares no expense or effort
in pursuit of his ambitions, spending enormous sums on bribes, and by the time he becomes consul,
Caesar has racked up considerable debts. What he needs now is a war:
a campaign of plunder to burnish his reputation
and fill his empty coffers. But Caesar has a problem:
there's not much left to plunder. His predecessors have already quashed
competition around the Mediterranean. His only remaining option
is the wild north of Europe, the land of the Celts,
or the "Gauls" as the Romans call them. Caesar plans to show these barbarians
who's boss, 300 years after the Celts themselves
had plundered Rome. Better late than never. Which brings us to the bane
of every Latin student's existence: the Commentarii de bello Gallico,
or Caesar's account of the Gallic Wars. In the region today known as France, Celtic chieftain Vercingetorix attempts to block the path
of Caesar's legions, barricading himself
into the city of Alesia. Caesar and 50,000 of his legionaries
surround the city with two layers
of circular fortifications, secured with guard towers,
moats and traps. Caesar describes the brutality of this war
without betraying a hint of emotion. Vercingetorix sends all the women,
children and elderly out of the city, but they are trapped
by the Roman fortifications. Caesar refuses to help them.
The wall remains closed. Then, Vercingetorix attacks. The battle lasts four days. More than once, the Gauls are close
to surmounting the Roman walls, but they are beaten back
and suffer major losses each time. Finally, the Roman commander himself
takes to the front lines of his cavalry, bolstering the wavering ranks
of his legionaries. They capture such a large number
of prisoners that each legionary
receives one as a slave. After six years of fighting,
Vercingetorix surrenders. His people, the Gauls,
are absorbed into the Roman Empire. With this victory, Caesar successfully expands
the Roman Empire far into the west. In the 19th century,
the Gaulish Vercingetorix becomes French. In modern France, he is still considered a national hero
deserving of a monument as a symbol of their unity as a nation. The world of the Celts shrinks
after the Battle of Alesia. First, they disappear north of the Alps, and then Caesar conquers Gaul
and incorporates it into the Roman Empire. In the end, only the Celts
on the British Isles remain. Caesar's path is drenched in blood. By his own account, he had over one million lives
on his conscience. Look behind you
and remember that you are but a man. [Clark] This good advice is drowned out
by the cheers of the masses. With the praise heaped upon Caesar,
he rises to the status of demigod - and he knows it. Megalomania
becomes his constant companion. After his victory over the Gauls,
Caesar calls for a victory parade, the likes of which
have never been seen before. It's an unparalleled show of strength. He dresses as Jupiter,
the chief deity in the Roman pantheon. No false modesty here! And Caesar presents
his most important trophy: Vercingetorix. He keeps him alive
just for this performance. Caesar, conqueror of the barbarians. The message comes across loud and clear. With Caesar,
a new idea takes hold in Europe: the concept of empire. Rome had been a republic up to that point,
ruled by the nobility. But the senators
transfer full control to Caesar, naming him dictator for life. The Roman Republic
becomes the "Imperium Romanum," incorporating broad swaths of Europe. So, ironically, Europeans have
one of the world's greatest egomaniacs to thank for the first political union. European emperors and dictators
invoke Caesar's name from Roman times
up until the 20th century. His successors, the "Caesars,"
became "Kaisers" and "Czars." Charlemagne, Ivan the Terrible, Napoleon Bonaparte, Emperor Wilhelm II and Benito Mussolini. Caesar's adopted son and heir, Augustus, is the first to truly and firmly
establish the idea of empire. And it's under his rule that people become aware of what it means
to govern a continent. And this included perfect communication
with his subjects across Europe. Augustus, who built this forum,
was a master of public relations. He really understood
the marketing of power. And here, as you can see,
he is depicted on a coin. This is how,
for the first time in European history, the image of a ruler traveled,
a million times over. Augustus preempted Andy Warhol's
20th-century axiom: "Expose yourself!" Take your picture, big yourself up
and send your image around the world. Facebook, Instagram -
nothing new there, then. As his power increased,
Augustus's picture changed. At the beginning, his face was still folded
in the worry lines of a politician preoccupied by the "res publica,"
the affairs of state. Later the lines fell away. The face depicted in pictures and on coins
is completely smooth - timeless and godlike. The image minted here was meticulously designed
and thought through by Augustus and his spin doctors. And the message was: You can be proud, Romans,
that you reign over the world. This is your calling. The comforts offered
by the Roman way of civilization are one of the primary factors
driving the success of Greco-Roman civilization. The Romans establish colonies everywhere: from southern France and Trier in Germany
to Bath in Britain, from the Atlantic to the Balkans. And the dense network of roads
they construct in the lands they conquer make it easy for legionaries, traders
and travelers to cross the continent. Roman roads crisscross
thousands of kilometers throughout Europe. The Romans organize an entire continent. They connect Europe
with their empire and their language, and they unite Europe with their laws. Soon, Roman law
would apply everywhere in Europe, governing the daily lives of its peoples, and stipulating the means
of resolving all disputes. The Romans have a criminal law
and a defined code of criminal procedure, which would form the basis
for everything that came afterwards. Roman citizenship, in particular,
had a tremendous power to integrate: it was granted to all inhabitants
of the Roman Empire in the year 212. Slaves were the only exception. Emperor Caracalla ensured
that there was equality before the law. And he also looked
to the pleasure of the Romans, ordering that the system of aqueducts
be extended and that gigantic thermal baths be built. Whether dressed for the public baths
or standing before a court of law, everyone was equal and possessed, in principle at least,
the same opportunities for advancement. Theoretically,
anyone could assume public office. And the Romans never forced a citizen
to give up his own culture. Many of those who fell under Rome's sway
wanted in any case to be like the Romans and so voluntarily assimilated themselves
to the Roman norm. And so, the "Pax Romana" came about: internal peace in this huge empire, and with it a loose community
that one might describe as proto-European. But not all Europeans are prepared to trade their freedom
for a bath at a Roman spa. The peoples of the regions
today known as Germany and Scotland offer stubborn, assertive resistance. Rather than subduing
the unruly barbarians, the Romans seal themselves off with Hadrian's Wall, today on the border
between England and Scotland. It was named for the Roman emperor
who commissioned its construction. They also set up a border defense system against the Germanic tribes
along the Rhine and Danube Rivers: the "limes,"
a 550-kilometer cultural border that cuts right through Europe. On one side are the cities
of the Roman empire, where civilization flourishes. There are magnificent buildings here,
spas and bustling marketplaces. When Augustus reigned, many millions of people
lived in these cities. Germania,
which is not occupied by the Romans, is thinly populated. It looks a bit like
a gigantic nature reserve. East of the Rhine live numerous Germanic and Slavic tribes
in far-flung villages. It's a completely different world,
an archaic world. A handful of travel reports, full of stories
about the barbarians to the north, were circulating in Rome. They were likely the basis
for the work of Publius Cornelius Tacitus, whose most famous publication
bears the succinct title Germania. The senator and historian apparently never traveled
to the wild north of Europe himself, but that didn't stop him from writing
46 chapters about these backward barbarian tribes
in the year 98 A.D. He describes them as slovenly dressers, and he makes mention of their simple foods
and their unusually intoxicating drink, something called "beer,"
which was unknown in Rome at the time. Tacitus praises the hospitality
of the Germanic tribes, their modesty and their bravery. But in fact, his aim
is to hold a mirror up to Roman society. He is particularly impressed with the marital fidelity
of the northerners, but he also mentions
their tendency to drink to excess and to gamble on games of dice. Of course, what else
can they be expected to do in such barren, wooded country?
Tacitus wonders. He puts all these musings to paper as he continues to marvel
at these exotic Teutons. There is brisk trade between the Romans and the Germanic tribes
in the border regions via gates in the limes. On the whole, the European neighbors
seem to have come to an arrangement. Only occasionally do the "numeri,"
a Roman rapid-response force, need to step in. Like border police, they take action
against the frequent raids plotted by Germanic hordes against the wealthy Romans
on the other side of the wall. But walls and fences
aren't a permanent solution, and the Romans learn that the hard way. When nomadic Asian tribes invade Europe
in the fourth century, the old order crumbles. Roman officer and historian
Ammianus Marcellinus describes the arrival
of the "Hun peoples," saying that they were
"excited by an unrestrained desire of plundering the possessions of others," and that they "went on ravaging
and slaughtering all the nations in their neighborhood." After more than 300 years, the "Pax Romana,"
the peace within the Roman empire, comes to an end. Germanic tribes descend on the empire,
as refugees and as conquerors. The Goths are the first to seek refuge
in the empire: they cross the Danube in 376. Other Germanic tribes would follow. Ammianus Marcellinus
observes this mass migration and reports on large numbers
of unfamiliar barbarian tribes "composed of various nations,
now, with all their families, wandering about in different directions
on the banks of the river Danube." "At first, this intelligence
was lightly treated by our people," he writes. And in fact,
the Romans gradually lose control, first over their borders,
and then over their empire. The empire is finally divided
in the year 395 into a Western and an Eastern
Roman Empire. This migration period upsets the balance
of ancient Europe, but at the same time,
Europe as we know it begins to take shape. Germanic kingdoms arise
in the territory of Western Rome, including the powerful Franconia in the region that is today
Germany and France. I've traveled to the Angles and Saxons
in England or, to be more specific, to Cambridge. Europe has always been about movement. Peoples and nations came and went.
Everything got mixed up. And the record of this long history
of more or less constant movement over thousands of years is recorded in the genetic material
of the Europeans. And with the modern methods
of gene technology, we can read it. Every individual can find out what kind of a mix
he or she is made up of. And that's interesting. I, for example,
would very much like to know how much of Europe
is inside me as an Australian and what paths my ancestors followed
on the old continent. With some patience
and a little bit of saliva I can find it out. I am going to send this sample
to a laboratory in the United States. My genetic material will be deciphered, and I am looking forward
to getting the result. By the way, all of this is only possible
because Francis Crick and James Watson discovered here in Cambridge
how our genetic material is constructed. And it was in this pub that they first informed the public
of their discoveries in 1953. Pop this into the postbox.
Let's see what they say. I'm eagerly awaiting my results.
And two weeks later, they arrive. [computer alert] Ah! The results of my gene test are in. And... here we have it. 78.5 percent of me is British or Irish.
That's hardly surprising. At least 5.1 percent is French or German. Apparently, you can't distinguish
between French and German genes. 2.5 percent is Scandinavian
and 11 percent of my genes come from the North European
and Baltic sea region. That must be the Viking in me. But I am also 0.7 percent Sardinian. I'm particularly proud of that element
of my genetic heritage. And then there are the Neanderthal genes,
which, apparently, we all have, and the DNA from North Africa - apparently, that too is universal -
and from the Middle East: all the result of migratory movement
to and within Europe. History has been mixing Europe together
since the Stone Age, and even I, as an Australian,
am part of that story. It's this extraordinary diversity,
this blend of languages and cultures, that has always triggered
movement in Europe. Just as it did in the Roman era,
when the "Imperium Romanum" collapsed. It was a gradual process. The supposed decadence
of late Roman culture wasn't the only thing
that led to its downfall. What does an empire look like
as it disintegrates? The continuous civil war
and declining economy of Western Rome means that that part of the empire
has essentially already dissolved. Child emperor Romulus Augustulus
sits on the imperial throne. The influence of the Germanic tribes
has grown significantly. Now, they seize complete control
of Western Europe. The story of the Roman Empire in the West
ends after 503 years, with the dethronement of the child emperor by Germanic leader Odoacer
in the year 476. Take the imperial mantle to Byzantium. Tell the emperor of East Rome...
that we no longer need it. Not here. From now on, I'll have a new title: "Rex Italiae." King of Italy. [Clark] This fountain
in the middle of Rome, right in front of the Pantheon, tells a typically European story. The Roman emperors loved obelisks because, as the ancient Egyptians
already knew, obelisks are a kind of antenna
to the gods. So, they caused them - this one, for example,
dates from the time of Ramses II - to be brought to the Eternal City. A thousand years later,
Pope Clement XI had it erected here, and added another antenna,
in the form of a cross, on top. And here you can see his coat of arms. The dolphins were added later during
the Baroque and represent Christ,
the Redeemer of Souls. And then there's the water
in the fountain itself: the worship of river gods
and spring nymphs was of course a widespread practice
among the Greeks. And for Plato, the philosopher, water always performed
an allegorical function. Plato compared the ideal state
to a body of clear waters into which all springs and brooks
flow and merge. And one could compare this fountain
with Europe itself. What was there in its past
is constantly mingling with something new. From this dynamic mixture,
great things can grow. So, what remains? For me, Rome's most beautiful building
is the Pantheon, with its massive dome. It's a place that reflects
the highs and lows of European history like no other. I want to go back there one more time. [Clark singing three musical notes]
[sound reverberating] [singing three further notes]
[sound reverberating] [singing three further notes]
[sound reverberating] The resonance of this place
conveys something of its immensity. This really is a breathtaking temple. When Michelangelo first clapped eyes
on the Pantheon in Rome, he thought
that such an architectural wonder could scarcely have been created
by mortal hands but must have been the work of angels. And perhaps he was right because that would explain why
the Pantheon survived the devastating destructions
of the Teutons in Rome, as well as a couple of earthquakes. At any rate,
the seizure of power by the Teutons turned out not to be the end
of European history. On the contrary,
it further enriched the unique mix on whose foundations European civilization
rests until this day. Because, instead of destroying
the ancient culture of the Greeks and Romans, the Germanic warriors
cultivated this legacy. A further ingredient was still to come:
Christianity. What will bind the Europeans together
but also bitterly divide them is their faith.
