The miniscule world
of quantum particles might be foreign
to most of us — but not for the scientists currently
using them to build a super-computer. Nobody knows what "quantum
computing" really means, but it is going
to change us. To its champions, quantum
computers are a pioneering development and a game-changer. The quantum computer can open
up an array of amazing possibilities. The scale of computer power
enables us to solve problems that we are not yet
even able to formulate. Its many applications
include simulating molecules: A ground-breaking advance in
the development of new drugs. Quantum computing
is still in its infancy — but is set to one day
revolutionize scientific research. What looks like a computer
chip made of plastic is in fact a model
of a human lung. Scientists at a Swiss start-up
are aiming to tackle diseases faster — with the help of
a super-computer. Nina Hobi founded Alveolix
together with Janick Stucki. Their work won them the
2022 Swiss Med Tech Award. The team here use a pipette
to transfer human lung cells to a thin, porous
membrane. The cells can then be activated
mechanically, to mimic a real lung. We're able to simulate these
cells by recreating the environment of the human body
in this plastic chip. It enables us to simulate miniature
organs that are far more similar to the real thing than any
other options currently available. More similar than with in-vitro
testing or animal experiments. The researchers say
the mock miniature lung will make it easier
to design new drugs. The drug development process
takes around 10 to 15 years. To begin with, you test a huge
number of molecules in petri-dishes — although there, the cells aren't
really like they are in the human body. There are no 3D layers or
forces of attraction, for example. It's a very basic set-up. You later
move on to animal experiments and conduct tests for,
say, toxic properties. The entire process
is extremely involved, especially when you think
about the animal testing required. And this is where our
technology comes in. It's hoped the miniature
lung will enable researchers, most notably at
pharmaceutical companies, to speed up the
drug-testing process. Here we have the endophil cells
and the immune cells on top of it. They’re actually
attached to it. Did you do
an infection? We can determine far earlier whether
a particular molecule is effective and whether there
are side-effects. It enables you to optimize the
process and ultimately lower costs — by 500 million francs per
drug, according to studies. Things that are already possible
today could be done even faster and more efficiently
with the technology — while also rendering
animal experiments redundant. Our company's aim is to help in
the development of better medication and the reduction of
side-effects for patients. We also want our technology to help
reduce or eliminate animal testing. Animal experiments are
simply not adequate predictors of whether a drug
actually works with humans. It was my doctoral supervisor
who originally got me interested in quantum computing.
And I'm still there today! Back when I started studying physics
at Zurich technical university, nobody was talking about
it. I'd never heard of it. Dominik Zumbühl is a researcher and
lecturer at the University of Basel, specializing
in quanta. They're the smallest units
of energy known to scientists — but with properties that would
make conventional bit-based computers look distinctly
primitive. A regular computer with
regular computing power performs one calculation
per time unit or 'clock cycle'. In quantum physics, you have countless calculations
being performed in parallel. A prime example is the
factorization of very large numbers. In this case, the quantum
computer quickly arrives at the result by simultaneously trying to
divide by all possible numbers. A classical computer processing a
number with several thousand digits would take as long
as the universe is old. But the same problem can be
solved by a quantum computer in a matter of hours
or even seconds. So what actually are quanta?
Exploring this mysterious little world requires us to think in the
smallest possible dimensions. Smaller still
than atoms. At this tiniest-imaginable
scale, the classical laws of nature no longer apply and
something fascinating happens. Quanta can exist in different
states and in different places at the same time. Quantum theory was
pioneered in the 1920s by the likes of Albert Einstein
and Erwin Schrödinger. They used thought experiments to
illustrate these apparent paradoxes that stretch the limits
of our imagination. Erwin Schrödinger was
an Austrian physicist primarily known today because
of a cat. More specifically: An experiment that he fortunately
never carried out in practice. He imagined a cat in a
box together with a device that would have a 50:50 chance
of releasing a deadly poison in the next hour. According to
quantum theory, the cat is then simultaneously
both dead and alive. But only provided we
don't check inside the box! In a quantum
mechanics system, mere observation influences
the actual state inside. We cannot make an
assessment without looking — including whether
the cat is dead or alive. What sounds absurd was a
demonstration of the conundrum at the heart of
quantum mechanics. The simultaneously different
states at the quantum level are not compatible with accepted
laws of nature. In this little world, particles can be linked or
'entangled' with each other while at the same time being
in different states and places. And that simultaneity
can be calculated. It's a state that can be called
'mathematical superposition' or... simultaneity. That state —
represented as wave function 'psi' — comprises a coefficient for an
upward spin plus another coefficient for a downward spin.
And this is simultaneity. And that's how you
can imagine a qubit: an arrow pointing in
a random direction. Quantum- or 'q' bits are the building
blocks of a quantum computer. While a normal computer
processes information in bits — as ones or zeroes — qubits
have both values at the same time. It's comparable
to a flipped coin, where you don't know
whether it will land heads or tails. Before these qubits can be
controlled and used for calculations, they have to
be immobilized. That in turn requires a complex
procedure in which they are cooled down to temperatures otherwise
seen in outer-space. Around minus 270
degrees Celsius. So the surface area
helps to exchange the heat, so the cold liquid which we're pumping
out is cooling the recondensing liquid which is coming down. We can
actually then do the experiments at temperatures
down to 10 milli-Kelvin. Compared to 4 Kelvin that's about
400 times colder in temperature. PhD students here at the
University of Basel are assembling a small quantum computer
with a small number of qubits. The aim is to deploy the technology
for a variety of applications once it's been
fully developed. Quantum computers would
then simulate molecules, for example — leading to the
development of new drugs and the elimination
of deadly diseases. Another potential application
is renewable energy storage. The technology has already brought
benefits to logistics operations. The introduction of quantum algorithms
has helped to increase the speed and capacity of cargo movement
at the port of Los Angeles. As a result, the facility now operates
more efficiently and with less energy. Quantum computing seems to have
highly lucrative business potential. For years now, a range of tech
companies including Google and IBM — and nation-state players
like China — have been in a race to build the first high-performance
quantum computer. The money invested in
research is in the billions. Switzerland has a
different approach. Uptown Basel Infinity
uses private-sector funding to provide companies with free
access to American quantum computers. The hub is called QuantumBasel
and is headed by Damir Bogdan. The problems facing industries
are getting increasingly complex. The use of artificial
intelligence is a factor, of course. But when you eventually reach certain
limits — and AI reaches its limits — then you have to think
a couple of steps ahead. Artificial intelligence applications
could run far more efficiently on quantum computers.
And when I say 'efficiency', I mean not only computing
speed but also energy efficiency. The hub works
with a hybrid system combining conventional
and quantum computers. Start-ups in the program can
turn to IBM's Frederik Flöther for advice on tackling their problems
— and on thinking outside of the box. The first thing is to break
down the individual issues and look at which specific
quantum algorithm is at all relevant. And as quantum is a completely
different kind of calculating, it enables you to give
problems a complete rethink and perhaps find
a new approach. This involves what we call
the Quantum State of Mind. Some 40 studies have
already been conducted on the basis of the quantum computer
with the purpose of simplifying and accelerating the
development of medication. In both medicine
and health care, we're seeing a significant
increase in the data available — and also in the
range of data... image data, data
from fitness trackers, data in medical
records and so on. And processing the complex
correlations between all those data requires the kind of computing
power that classical computers struggle to achieve. And that's where
quantum computers have real potential. An example from the
pharmaceutical industry: To date, researchers
have covered just 1% of all potentially active
molecules for drugs. This is reflected in cancer
treatment, for example. Only one in three patients respond
directly to drug-based therapies. We sadly won't be able to
resolve all of these challenges with quantum
computing, but we're confident of being
able to help with some of them. Further south, in Berne, the team
at Alveolix are hoping to resolve one of those problems
in the very near future. Quantum computers can be used
to evaluate huge amounts of data, providing detailed insights
into a patient's genetic make-up. The small-scale replica of
a lung — or another organ — is designed to deliver more effective
treatments for cancer patients. We don't know yet which of the
different types might be effective. You can look at the genome and wonder
what the best one for the patient is, and maybe make a
customized cocktail. The patient might then
start an immuno-therapy. And when they have a break, that's
when we can take a tissue sample. After placing the sample
onto our organ-on-chip, we would then try out a new cocktail,
so that it would have a better effect when the patient goes
for their next treatment. What's especially crucial for cancer
patients is minimizing side-effects. Instead of additional suffering,
you want them to be safe and getting the most
effective medication available. And that's where
we can help. At the same time, Alveolix wants
to help eliminate animal testing from preclinical
studies. For decades, animal experiments
have been standard procedure in the development of new drugs, with
rodents the most widely used species. In Switzerland
alone, labs perform tests on over
half a million animals a year. Our immediate objective is
to reduce animal experiments. There are a large number of
drugs that are only effective with the human genome and human cells,
making animal tests of zero advantage. So effective drugs don't
even reach the market because they're stopped prematurely
in the pre-clinical study phase. Our aim is not removing
all of them from the market but abolishing the
most severe tests where the animals are under
extreme pain and duress. Experiments with
severity levels 3 and 4. And we're very optimistic about
helping to make this happen soon. But in Europe, their
efforts face a hurdle. The European Medicines Agency
refuses to grant approval for drugs without animal testing beforehand.
In the United States, however, a bill passed in 2022 removed
the requirement for animal tests prior to market
approval. And a proposed update on that
legislation would also allow tests using computer models
or artificial organs. There is already large-scale
research in the US on this front — as seen at the Cleveland
Clinic in the state of Ohio. The latest breakthrough there is
an in-house quantum computer. It's the first quantum computer in
the world to be uniquely dedicated to healthcare research. And its
work will be much appreciated, given the clinic's 10 million
patient-visits per year. John R. Smith is a senior researcher
at IBM and highlights the dividends from the vast amounts
of medical data: This has the potential to
drive our pace of progress to addressing the important
disease challenges that we’re facing — and challenges in patient
care. So much faster. And to produce
breakthroughs and discoveries that will be absolutely
essential for all of us. In March 2023 the
clinic officially unveiled its treasured
quantum computer. Its CEO welcomed guests
from Cleveland and further afield. Thank you
very much. We’re bringing something new to
our organization and to the world. The quantum computer System I — it
sounds a little bit science fiction — which is right behind me, is the most
advanced computational technology and computational
platform that exists. We’re very excited because it is going
to allow to us to advance research, advance discovery and
advance medical care. And it will also
create a lot of jobs. Among the guests invited to
the event was Damir Bogdan from QuantumBasel and
UptownBasel — which is no coincidence. The US is the leading market in the
development of quantum computers — and Uptown is
a partner of IBM. An Australian think-tank published
a study citing 44 technologies that will change the world. And China
is already leading in 37 of them. And one of the
remaining seven, where the US is ahead, is
the field of quantum computing. Bad news for
the EU too, with a failed partnership agreement
making cooperation more difficult. The decision by Switzerland or the
EU that Switzerland cannot be involved in the Horizon program means we have
to find someone else to work with. It doesn't mean UptownBasel
is no longer interested in European
partnerships. But we are in the US a lot
because of all that's happening there. Another attraction for
the company executive is the Silicon-Valley
mentality — a world away from the conservative,
risk-averse approach in Switzerland. That said: Switzerland does
have a lot of strong points. We have brilliant research in
this area — in Basel, at the EPFL and Zurich
Technical University. What we're missing
sometimes is the proper climate for start-ups
to grow in — and that's a lot
better in the US. The quantum computer's evolution to
date promises incredible opportunities in the future. But scientists in universities are
more cautious about developments. There's a risk of it
perhaps taking longer, and of certain
problems cropping up. Building a quantum computer that can
immediately solve gigantic problems won't be easy. It will have
to be one step at a time. Today's computers took
many, many years to develop. And quantum computers
will likely be the same, and need 10 years
or more to complete. Right now, we're still
researching the basics. More qubits means more computing
power. The IBM quantum computers in commercial use today have
433 of them — although currently, pure research is still focused on
the physics of the individual qubits. Some qubits are
relatively easy to make. There are already computers
with 100 or a thousand of them — and plans for reaching
10,000 or 100,000. The problem is that the
quality isn't good enough yet, with a relatively high frequency
of mistakes in calculations. There's no point having
as many qubits as possible if they're not
good enough. We need major
improvements, including work on individual or a
smaller number of coupled qubits. But the race
is totally open. Zurich's Technical University is
another center of qubit research. Professor of theoretical
physics Renato Renner says that the development of the quantum
computer has still barely begun: Quantum computers are at a
similar stage to early transistors. They're still very big. The 100 qubits
might together take up the space of a massive experiments
table with all the lab electronics. And it's not yet clear how we
could scale it down to at some point pack millions of qubits
into a small space have a feasible
working setup. That doesn't
mean we can't do it, but comparatively speaking we're
still in the vacuum-tube computer era. Think how back then there was
nobody talking about the Internet or social media! We cannot
yet appreciate the potential — nor the dangers
either, of course. Renato Renner is familiar with
the dangers of quantum computing. He gives lectures in
cryptography — data encryption. Quantum computers really do pose
a threat to today's data security. When we do e-banking or use encrypted
communication in other contexts, we need what's called
'public-key cryptography'. And that system will
become completely insecure once we have quantum
computers up and running. Whoever has the quantum computer
will have full and immediate access to all of that data. And that's
a very concrete problem. So far, a simple mathematical method
has been sufficient to protect our data: Factorization. Some calculations are straightforward,
say: 3 times 7 equals 21. But if I turn it
around and ask: What are two numbers
that give us that product, then I basically have to try
out all possible combinations. And with the numbers having up to a
hundred digits, I'll be at it forever. Not even a computer
that can process far faster will be able to test all
hundred-digit numbers. A quantum computer, on the other hand,
can try out the numbers in parallel — and arrive at the result
in a fraction of a second. The implications have
experts concerned. We're relatively
late to the game, because we know the secrecy
of the data being encrypted has a very
limited lifespan. The things that I encrypt today
using public-key cryptography will be readable once the
quantum computer exists. Data can then only be encrypted by
again using the quantum computer. In effect: by beating the enemy
at its own game. And this is how: The sender of the data generates
qubits with a value of 0 or 1 — and then sends a
completely random sequence of those qubits
to the recipient. It serves as a key that
only those two parties know. Of course, someone could
try to spy on the transfer — but this is where quantum
mechanics enters the equation. An attempt to intercept the
qubits will now change them — with both sender and
recipient alerted immediately. So the key cannot be
secretly copied or read. The actual encrypted
message is not transferred until the key has
first arrived un-read. The problem is:
in technical terms, the idea is currently
not really feasible. It sounds extremely difficult
if not near-impossible, but we know that it really
does work — but it is expensive. A solution that is absolutely secure
is going to cost a lot of money. But looking at a
long-term horizon — not 10 but more like 40 or 50
years — then it could be a solution. And data security is not the only
factor to consider in the long term. Quantum computing still has
a lot of obstacles to overcome — meaning that investors
will have to be patient. Everyone's talking
about quantum computing, but we can't expect to
have this killer application in just a few
years from now. It's going to take a lot of
development stages and investment to get to the point where
the application is available. And above all: time — although
that in turn depends on investment. Investment is far higher than we
could have imagined a few years ago. So that is reason
to be optimistic. There are start-ups and
companies following the hype, and eager to invest
in this future concept. As a result: Graduates studying physics and
quantum computing have a range of jobs to choose from in the various
start-ups or big tech firms pursuing quantum
computing projects. There's a huge
number of options. We can't imagine the changes involved
— because they're quantum leaps! And that's why we
need 'moon shots' — projects where you aim in a
direction where you can't lose sight of the vision but
will probably have to make a few
adjustments along the way. And that's not possible, unless
we find a new way of thinking.
