>> TEST TEST >> TEST TEST. >> TEST TEST >> NASA'S JET PROPULSION LABORATORY PRESENTS THE VON KARMAN LECTURE, A SERIES OF TALKS BY SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS EXPLORING OUR PLANET, SOLAR SYSTEM AND ALL THAT LIES BEYOND. >> HEY, GOOD EVENING, LADIES AND GENTLEMEN. HOW'S EVERYONE TONIGHT? GOOD. WELL, AS ALWAYS, THANK YOU VERY VERY MUCH FOR COMING OUT TO JOIN US. JUNO, THE SOLAR POWERED SPACECRAFT ORBITING JUPITER SINCE JULY 4, 2016 FLIES BY THE GIANT PLANET EVERY 53 DAYS, COLLECTING A WEALTH OF NEW INFORMATION WITH EACH PASS. THE DATA COLLECTED SO FAR HAVE REVOLUTIONIZED OUR UNDERSTANDING OF JUPITER AND GIANT PLANETS IN GENERAL. THIS TALK WILL SUGGEST WHAT WE MIGHT EXPECT IN THE COMING YEARS. TONIGHT'S GUEST IS THE JUNO PROJECT SCIENTISTS AND CO IN INVESTIGATOR. HE HAS WORKED AT THE JET PROPULSION LABORATORY 1990, DURING WHICH TIME HIS INTERESTS HAVE CONCLUDED THE LIGHT LEFT OVER FROM THE BIG BANG, SEAH FOR EXTRA TRUST YELL INTELLIGENCE. MEASURING STAR FIES. LOOKING FOR ASTEROIDS AND MONITORING RADIATION. HE HAS DONE AS STRONG KNEE FROM SOUTH POLE, HIGH ALTITUDE BALLOONS AND SPACECRAFT. HE IS CURRENTLY THE LEAD SCIENTISTS FOR THE GOLD TONE APPLE VALLEY RADIO TELESCOPE PROJECT WHERE STUDENTS LEARN SCIENCE BY DOING REAL SCIENCE. HE IS AN ELECTED MEMBER OF THE BOARD OF EDUCATION IN CULVER CITY, CALIFORNIA WHERE HE LIVES WITH HIS WIFE AND THREE CHILDREN. PLEASE HELP ME WELCOME TONIGHT'S GUEST. >> HI, EVERYBODY. SO, AS YOU JUST HEARD, I'M GOING TO TALK TO YOU ABOUT JUNO AND WHAT WE LEARNED AT JUPITER AND I'M PROBABLY GOING TO TRY TO RUSH THROUGH THE SLIDES TO MAKE SURE WE HAVE TIME FOR QUESTIONS AT THE END, BECAUSE QUESTIONS ARE MY FAVORITE PART, BUT IF I'M GOING TAFT, LET ME KNOW. SAVE UP ALL YOUR QUESTIN AND REQUEST ME A TON OF QUESTIONS AT THE END, BECAUSE AS I SAID, THAT'S THE FUN PART. FIRST, LET ME TELL YOU A LITTLE BIT ABOUT WHAT JUNO IS. JUNO IS A SOLAR POWERED SPACECRAFT, ORBITING JUPITER SINCE FOURTH OF JULY, 2016, AND WE ARE -- IT'S A 50 FLEE DAY ORBIT, SO EVERY 53 DAYS, WE HAVE A CLOSE FLY BY AND GET A WHOLE BUNCH OF DATA, SAY FOR EIGHT HOURS TOTAL AND MOST OF THE GOOD STUFF IS WITHIN A COUPLE HOURS OF OUR CLOSEST APPROACH AND WE SPEND 53 DAYS FAR FROM THE PLANET, COME AROUND AGAIN AND DO IT AGAIN. WE'VE DONE A DOZEN OF THOSE SO FAR AND WHAT WE'VE LEARNED HAS BEEN JUST ABSOLUTELY AMAZING. OUR PICTURE OF WHAT JUPITER IS LIKE AND WHAT IT'S MADE OUT OF AND WHAT IT LOOKS LIKE IS COMPLETELY DIFFERENT THAN IT WAS BEFORE WE GOT THERE WITH THE SPACECRAFT. BEFORE I TELL YOU ALL THAT STUFF, I NEED TO TALK A LITTLE BIT ABOUT WHAT WE'RE DOING. IT'S GOING TO SEEM LIKE I TAKE FOREVER ON THIS SLIDE, BECAUSE I DO BUT DON'T WORRY, I'LL BE FASTER ON ALL THE OTHERS. ALL RIGHT, SO THERE'S FOUR MAIN THINGS WE'RE TRYING TO DO WITH JUPITER. WE'RE TRYING TO UNDERSTAND THE ORIGIN OF JUPITER. HOW DID THE GIANT PLANET FORM. THAT'S IMPORTANT BECAUSE IF YOU WANT TO UNDERSTAND HOW SOLAR SYSTEMS FORM, JUPITER IS A REALLY GOOD PLACE TO START. IF YOU WANT TO KNOW WHAT THE EARTH CAME FROM, WHERE DO WE COME FROM, YOU NEED TO UNDERSTAND WHERE JUPITER CAME FROM. THE SIMPLEST WAY TO UNDERSTAND THAT, TO PICTURE THAT IN YOUR MIND IS TO THINK ABOUT OUR SOLAR SYSTEM AND HOW IT FORMED AND WE KNOW IS BASICALLY 99.5% OF THE MASS IN THE SOLAR SYSTEM IS THE SUN, SO ALMOST ALL OF IT IS THE SUN AND IT FORMED PERCENT. THEEMAINING HALF A% OR SO LEFT, MORE THAN TWO THIRDS OF THAT IS JUPITER AND JUPITER FORMED NEXT. ALL THE OTHER PLANETS AND ASTEROIDS, COMETS AND ALL THAT STUF THAT WE SEE IN OUR SOLAR SYSTEM ARE FORMED AFTER JUPITER AND THEY'RE IN THAT ONE THIRD OF WHAT'S LEFT AFTER YOU TAKE OUT THE SUN AND JUPITER. ALL RIGHT? SO YOU CAN THEY WILL OF I HAVE THE AS JUPITER FORMED FROM THE LEFTOVERS OF THE SUN AND EVERYTHING ELSE FORMED FROM THE LEFTOVERS OF JUPITER. IT'S REALLY IMPORTANT TO DERSTAND HOW JUPITER FORMED AND A COUPLE OF THINGS WE DIDN'T KNOW BEFORE JUNO GOT THERE AND HELP US ARE TO UNDERSTAND HOW MUCH WATER THERE IS IN JUPITER AND TO UNDERSTAND THE MASS OF JUPITER'S CORE DOWN INSIDE. JUPITER IS A GAS GIANT, IT'S MADE OUT OF GASES AND ALL HEAVY STUFF INSIDE JUPITER TELLS US ABOUT THE ORIGIN. MOST OF THAT WILL HAVE SUNK DOWN INTO THE MIDDLE AND MADE A DENSE CORE IN THE CENTER OF THE PLANET. WE NEEDED TO KNOW HOW BIG THAT CORE WAS. LIKEWISE, IF YOU LOOK AT THE SOLAR SYSTEM AND SAY WHAT ARE THE ELEMENTS, WHAT IS THE SOLAR SYSTEM MADE OUT OF, MOST HYDROGEN, HELIUM AND THE THIRD ONE IS OXYGEN. IF YOU THINK ABOUT IT, HYDROGEN IS A GAS, HELIUM IS A GAS. THE FIRST SOLID YOU'RE GOING TO GET IS GOING TO BE WATER, H20, TWO HYDROGENS AND AN OXYGEN. OUR THEORIES OF HOW THE PLANETS FORM RESOLVE AROUND WATER. WE THINK JUPITER PROBABLY FORMED FROM ASTEROID SIZE PIECES OF ICE COLLIDING TOGETHER AND STICKING UNTIL YOU HAD ENOUGH SO THAT ITS GRAVITY COULD HOLD THE HYDROGEN AND HELIUM AND MAKE A GIANT PLANET. WE SHOULD FIND WATER IN JUPITER AND HOW MUCH WATER WE FIND SHOULD TELL US WHETHER IT WORKED TH WAY, WHETHER IT WAS SMALLER PIECES OF ICE, WHETHER JUPITER FORMED FAR FROM THE SUN WHERE IT IS REALLY COLD OR CLOSER TO THE SUN WHERE IT IS NOW, WHERE THE ICE WATER STILL MAKES ICE BUT MAYBE THE OTHER ELEMENTS DON'T STICK TOHE ICE THE SAME WAY SO THE RATIO OF HOW MUCH WATER THERE IS TO HOW MUCH OF THE OTHER STUFF IT IS TELLS US A LOT ABOUT HOW JUPITER FORMED. THOSE ARE THE BIGS THINGS WE WANT TO FIND, CORE AND WATER. WE WANT TO UNDERSTAND THE INTERIOR OF JUPITER IN GENERAL. WHAT WE SEE FROM THE EARTH IS JUST CLOUDS AND THE TOP OF THE ATMOSPHERE. IT'S 300 TIMES THE MASS OF THE EARTH. IT'S BIGGER VOLUME. YOU COULD FIT A THOUSAND EARTHS INSIDE AND WE SEE SOME AMAZING STRUCTURE THAT YOU SEE IN THE PICTURE THERE WITH BELTS AND ZONES, THOSE ORANGE AND WHITE STRIPES, THOSE ARE JET STREAMS MOVING AT HUNDREDS OF MILES AN HOUR. WE DON'T SEE BENEATH THOSE FROM THE EARTH. UNTIL JUNO GOT THERE AND STARTED DOING MEASUREMENTS, WE HAD VERY LITTLE UNDERSTANDINGFUL WHAT THE ATMOSPHERE OF JUPITER WAS LIKE UNDERNEATH THOSE CLOUDS AT THE VERY TOP. THE PLANET OF COURSE IS MOSTLY ATMOSPHERE ALL RIGHT, SO THAT'S A BIG THING WE WANT TO UNDERSTAND AND TO UNDERSTAND THE INTERIOR OF THE PLANET, WE NEED TO UNDERSTAND ABOUT THE CORE DOWN INSIDE. WE NEED TO UNDERSTAND HOW DEEP THOSE BETS AND ZONES GO. WE NEED TO UNDERSTAND HOW EVERYTHING MOVES INTERIOR TO THE PLANET. THEN OF COURSE IT IS GAS GIANT PLANET. WE WANT TO UNDERSTAND THE ATMOSPHERE. WE HAVE A GREAT RED SPOT. IT HAS A STORM BIGGER THAN THE ENTIRE EARTH. IT HAS THE JET STREAMS I MENTIONED. IT HAS MOTIONS AND DEEP STORMS THAT WE CAN LEARN ABOUT TO UNDERSTAND JUPITER AND ALSO TO UNDERSTAND ABOUT HOW WEATHER WORKS IN GENERAL AND MAYBE EVEN ABOUT WEATHER ON OTHER PLAN NETS BY HAVING JUPITER TO COMPARE WITH. FINALLY, BECAUS OF THE ORBIT WE'RE IN, OUR SPACECRAFT, REMEMBER I SAID STARTS OUT REALLY FAR FROM THE PLANET AND COMES IN AND OR BITS OVER THE POLES. IF YOU WATCH IN THAT LITTLE MOVIE, YOU SEE THE IMAGINARY SPACECRAFT FLYING BY, WHAT THAT MEANS IS THAT WHEN IT GOES OVER THE POLEF JUPITER, IT'S CROSSINGS ALL THE MAGNETIC FIELD LINES. IF YOU THINK OF JUPITER'S MAGNETIC FIELD LIKE T EARTH'S SHOWN AS THOSE WHITE LINES THERE LOOKING CURLY, THESE THINGS, YOU CAN BARELY SEE IF YOU'RE LOOKING. IF YOU LOOK AT THOSE, RIGHT AS THE SPACECRAFT COMES IN, IT CROSSES ALL OF THOSE MAGNETIC FIELD LINES. THAT'S IMPORTANT. OUT AWAY FROM THE PLANET ARE GIANT RADIATION BELTS, HIGH ENERGY PARTICLES THAT GENERATE RADIO WAVES, THAT PRODUCE AURORA, NORTHERN AND SOUTHERN LIGHTS IN JUPITER'S ATMOSPHERE WHEN THE PARTICLES HILT THE ATMOSPHERE. ALL THOSE PARTICLES ARE ARRANGED BY THE MAGNETIC FIELD. IF YOU MEASURE THE PARTICLES IN ONE PLACE ON A MAGNETIC FIELD LINE, YOU'RE LEARNING A LOT ABOUT WHAT THEY DO EVERYWHERE ON THAT SAME MAGNETIC FIELD LINE AND BECAUSE WE'RE COMING OVER THE POLE AND BECAUSE THE PLANET'S ROTATING, WE CROSS ALL WE CAN MEASURE THE PARTICLES THAT HIT THE SPACECRAFT AND LEARN ABOUT ALMOST JUPITER'S ENTIRE MAG NIETO SPHERE. AS WELL BY COMING OVER THE POLE, WE GET THE FIRST GOOD LOOK AT NORTH AND SOUTH POLES OF JUPITER, INCLUDING THE AURORA, LIGHTS GENERATED BY PARTICLES HITTING THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE. WE LEARN ABOUT THE MAG NIETO SPHERE THAT WAY. WE LEARN ABOUT THE RADIATION BELTS BY TAKING PICTURES OF THE AURORA AT THE SAME TIME THE PARTICLES ARE HITTING THE SPACRAFT THAT WILL GO DOWN AND HIT THE PLANET AND MAKE THE AURORA. WE HAVE A GREAT VANTAGE POINT TO SAY THE MAG NIETO SPHERE, I'VE COLOR CODED THEM WITH YELLOW TO MATCH THAT YELLOW TEX. WE'RE TRYING TO UNDERSTAND THE ATMOSPHERE. WE GET AT THE ATMOSPHERE IN A NUMBER OF WAYS, BUT ONE OF THE KEY WAYS THAT WE STUDY THE ATMOSPHERE OF JUPITER IS WITH THE MICROWAVE RAID I DON'T MEAN AT HER. IT'S USING RADIO WAVES BECAUSE RADIO CAN SEE THROUGH THE CLOUDS SO WE GET REALLY CLOSE TO THE PLANET, LOOK THROUGH THE CLOUDS TO THE RADIO WAVES AND THE FOR THE FIRST TIME WE CAN LOOK AT JUPITER'S ATMOSPHERE. THAT'S ONE WAY OF SEEING INTO THE PLANET A LITTLE BIT AND LEARN ABOUT THE ATMOSPHERE. IT'S ALSO HOW WE TRY TO MEASURE THE WATER, BECAUSE WATER BE A ORBS MICRO WAVES, SO THE MORE WATER THERE IS IN THE ATMOSPHERE, THE LESS WE CAN SEE INSIDE, THE LESS WATER THERE IS, THE DEEPER WE CAN SEE. BY HAVING A BUNCH OF CHANNELS ON THE RADIO RECEIVER TO SEE DIFFERENT DEPTHS AND MEASURING HOW DEEP WE CAN SEE, WE CAN LEARN HOW MUCH WATER IS IN JUPITER'S ATMOSPHERE. TO UNDERSTAND THAT INTERIOR, WE WANT TO KNOW ABOUT THIS CORE. THERE'S A DENSE CORE WAY DOWN INSIDE THE PLANET. YOU MIGHT THINK OUR GOAL WOULD BE TO DROP SOMETHING IN AND GO ALL THE WAY DOWN AT THE CORE. THE PROBLEM IS THAT JUPITER IS SO HE, IT'S SO MUCH MASS, THAT BY THE TIME YOU GET A TINY FRACTION OF THE WAY INTO THE PLANET, THE PRESSURE FROM ALL THAT MASS ABOVE YOU, THE GRAVITY IS SQUEEZING IT SO MUCH, THE PRESSURE GETS UP TO 10, 20, 100 TIMES THE PRESSURE HERE ON THE EARTH. BY THE TIME YOU GET A QUARTER OR A THIRD OF THE WAY IN, THE PRESSURE'S MILLIONS OF TIMES THE PRESSURE HERE ON THE EARTH. WE DON'T KNOW HOW TO BUILD ANYTHING THAT CAN SURVIVE THAT AND GET DOWN AT THE INTERIOR. WE HAVE TO MEASURE THAT CORE WITHOUT TOUCHING IT. THE WAY WE DO THAT IS WE USE GRAVITY BECAUSE IT COMES FROM THE ENTIRE PLANET INCLUDING THE CORE AND USE THE MAGNETIC FIELD BECAUSE THE MAGNETIC FIELD COMES FROM DEEP INSE THE PLANET. IT COMES FROM AN OCEAN OF LIQUID METALLIC HYDROGEN INSIDE ONE JUPITER. I TALK ABOUT JUNO A LOT AND I GET TO SAY MA PHRASE, LIQUID METALLIC HYDROGEN A LOT. IT'S LIQUID METAL LICK HYDROGEN. IF I HAD A BALLOON FULL OF HYDROGEN HERE IN THE ROOM, IT WOULD FLOAT UP INTO THE SKY. IT'S THE LIGHTEST ELEMENT THERE IS, BUT ON JUPITER, A QUARTER OH ARE A THIRD OF THE WAY OR SO INTO THE PLANET, THE PRESSURE GETS UP TO ABOUT 2 MILLION BARS, 2 MILLION TIMES THE PRESSURE HERE IN THE ROOM, THAT PRESSURE IS SO HIGH THAT NOT ONLY IS HYDROGEN GAS SQUEEZED DOWN SO MUCH IT BECOMES A LIQUID, BUT IN EFFECT, THE ELECTRONS ARE SQUEEZED RIGHT OFF THE ATOMS. IT CONDUCTS ELECTRICITY, IT'S A LIQUID METAL. IT'S THE SWIRLING MOTION OF THAT LIQUID METAL HYDROGEN THAT MAKES THE MAGNETIC FIELD. BY MEASURING THE MAGNETIC FIELD, WE'RE LEARNING ABOUT THE DEEP INTERIOR. AS I SAID, GRAVITY COMES FROM THE ENTIRE PLANET. JUPITER IS ROTATING EVERY 10 HOURS, ROTATING MORE THAN TWICE AS FAST AS THE EARTH. IT BULGES OUT AT THE EQUATOR. WHEN A SPACECRAFT FALLS PAST THE PLANET, GOES PAST THAT BULGE, IT SPEEDS UP AS THE GRAVITY IS PUING IT FORWARD AND WHEN IT PASSES OVER IT, IT SLOWS DOWN BECAUSE GRAVITY IS PULLING IT BACK IN THE OTHER DIRECTION. BY MEASURING VERY ACCURATELY THE SPEED OF THE SPACECRAFT, WE'RE IN EFFECT MEASURING THE GRAVITY OF JUPITER AND HOW IT STRETCHES WHEN IT ROTATES. OF COURSE, A DENSE CORE IN THE CENTERS WILL STRETCH DIFFERENTLY THAN NOT A DENSE CORE OR A LARGER ONE WILL STRETCH DIFFERENTLY THAN A SMALLER ONE. BY VERY ACCURATELY PRESSURING THE GRAVITY, WE CAN LEARN ABOUT THE INTERIOR. THAT'S THE BASIC IDEA OF HOW THE SPACECRAFT WORKS. YOU CAN SEE THE COLOR CODING FOR THE INSTRUMENTS. YOU CAN SEE THE ORANGE STUFF THAT RELEASE THE RADIATION BETS. JUPITER IS SURROUNDED BY HIGH ENERGY PARTICLES TRAPPED IN ITS MAGNETIC FIELD AND THEY'RE A DANGER TO THIS SPACECRAFT. WE HAVE TO TRY TO GO QUICKLY THROUGH THE RADIATION BELTS SO THE ELECTRONICS DON'T GET TOO DAMAGED AND WE GO REALLY CLOSE TO THE MAN NET TO MASH THINGS AND GET REALLY CLOSE AND BECAUSE THERE'S A GAP IN THE RADIATION BELTS NEAR THE PLANET. ALL THIS STUFF TRAPPED IN THE HIGH ENERGY PARTICLES TRAPPED IN THE MAGNETIC FIELD IS DANGEROUS TO US AND WE WANT TO AVOID IT. UNFORTUNATELY, IT GOES AROUND JUPITER LIKE A BIG DOUGHNUT AND WE CAN FLY OVER THE TOP OF IT WHERE THERE ISN'T TOO MUCH RADIATION, GET WAY FAR AWAY FROM THE PLANET AND COME BACK AGAIN EVERY 53 DAYS. THAT'S WHAT WE DO AND I'M FINALLY OFF THIS SLIDE. OK. WHAT YOU WANT TO KNOW IS WHAT HAVE WE LEARNED, RIGHT? ALL RIGHT. SO WE PUBLISHED ABOUT 80 PAPERS OR SO, SO FAR, AND WE HAVE ANOTHER 100 OR SO IN THE WORKS, SO AT ABOUT A MINUTE PER PAPER, THAT'S ABOUT THREE HOURS, WHICH MEANS I'M NOT GOING TO TELL YOU EVERYTHING AND I BETTER GIVE YOU THE SHORTERSION. SO HERE'S THE SHORT VERSION. IT'S A WHOLE NEW JUPITER. EVERY MAJOR AREA IN WHICH WE MEASURED THINGS FOR THE FIRST TIME, EVERY WAY IN WHICH OUR EXPERIMENTS, OUR SPACECRAFT WAS DOING SOMETHING NEW WITH JUPITER AND LOOKING AT IT IN A WAY THAT HADN'T BEEN DONE BEFORE, WE FOUND BIG SURPRISES. ALL THE STUFF PEOPLE THOUGHT THEY KNEW ABOUT JUPITER THAT WE WENT TO MEASURE, THE ORIGINAL THEORIES WERE WRONG. THEY NEEDED TO BE FIXED BASED ON THE DATA. AS SOMEBODY WHO MEASURES STUFF AS AN EXPERIMENTALIST, THAT'S REALLY FUN. MAKING THE THEORIORISTS THROW OUT THEIR THEY ARE REQUIRES IS GREAT AND WE DID THAT A LOT. I'M NOT GOING TO BE ABLE TO TELL YOU EVERYTHING, BUT I'LL TELL YOU SOME OF THE HIGHLIGHTS AND THEN I'LL TAKE QUESTIONS AT THE END AND MAYBE WE CAN TALK ABOUT OTHER STUFF. ALL RIGHT, SO VERY FIRST THING PRETTY MUCH, FIRST DAY WE GOT GOOD DATA WHICH WAS AUGUST 27, 2016. WE WENT INTO ORBIT ON FOURTH OF JULY 2016, BUT SINCE WE WERE FIRING THE MAIN ENGINE AND GOING INTO ORBIT, CAME AROUND 53 DAYS LATER AND THAT'S WHEN WE TOOK OUR FIRST GOOD SET OF SCIENCE DATA. FIRST THING WE SAW WAS PICTURES OF THE NORTH AND SOUTH POLE OF JUPITER AND THEY DON'T LOOK ANYTHING LIKE JUPITER DOES FROM THE SIDE. ON THE RIGHT IS A NICE PICTURE OF JUPITER WITH ABOUT HOW YOU'D SEE IT FROM THE EARTH WITH A REALLY GOOD TELESCOPE. I THINK THAT MIGHT BE FROM CASSINI OR SOMETHING, BUT IT'S HOW SIGNIFICANCE LOOKS FROM THE SIDE. BETS AND ZONES, ORIGINAL AND WHITE SURPRISE, THE GREAT RED SPOT ALL THAT STUFF. ON THE LEFT IS A PICTURE FROM THE SOUTH POLE AND A PICTURE OF THE NORTH POLE FROM OUR FIRST PASS. SO OF COURSE, IT'S ONLY HALF LIT BY THE SUN. RIGHT, YOU HAVE TO GO BY AGAIN AND GET JUPITER AT A DIFFERENT ROTATION TO SEE THE REST OF I BUT ALREADY YOU CAN SEE FROM THAT THAT IT LOOKS LIKE YOU'RE LOOKING AT A DIFFERENT PLANET. IT DOESN'T EVEN LOOK SIMILAR. ALL THESE THINGS YOU ARE SEEING THAT LOOK LIKE CREATORS ARE SOMETHING, THOSE ARE STORMS. THOSE ARE STORMS. MANY OF THEM, BIGGER THAN THE WHOLE UNITED STATES. BIGGER THAN CONTINENTS HERE. THERE'S STORMS IN THE NORTH AND IN THE SOUTH AND THEY LAST FOR REALLY LONG TIME. THERE'S A ZILLION OF THEM, AND WE DON'T SEE THE CONTINUATION OF THE BELTS AND ZONES, WE DON'T SEE THE KIND OF PATTERN WE SAW AT SATURN, BASICALLY THIS WAS A BIG SURPRISE AND THERE WERE MORE SURPRISES TO COME JUST FROM THAT, LOOKING AT T NORTH AND SOUTH POLES. WHAT YOU'RE LOOKING AT NOW IS A COMPOSITE IMAGE WHERE WE PUT TOGETHER A BUNCH OF DIFFERENT VIEWS SO WE CAN GET THE HOLE, IN THIS CASE I THINK THAT'S THE SOUTH POLE, AND WE'VE AGGERATED THE COLOR, SO THE COLOR'S BEEN STRETCHED. IT'S NOT THAT BLUE AT THE SOUTH POLE, BUT IT'S DEFINITELY BLUER AT THE SOUTH POLE THAN IT IS AT THE EQUATOR OF JUPITER. AND NO, WE DON'T KNOW WHY YET, FOR SOME REASON, THE GASES WE'RE LOOKING AT, IT'S GOT TO BE SOMETHING WHAT GASES WE'RE SEEING, SO ITS COMPOSITION IS BLUER AT THE POLES THAN AT THE EQUATE A YEAR AND THERE ARE CYCLONES. THOSE ARE HARD TO SEE IN THIS VISIBLE LIGHT PICTURE, B WE HAD TO MAKE A COMPOSITE IMAGE. WE GET TO WATCH THEM AND SEE DETAILS, BUT WE SEE DIFFERENT DETAILS WITH THE INFRARED CAMERA. HERE'S THE ITALIAN MADE INFRARED CAMERA. OVERIAN INFRARED AURORAL MAPPER. IT DOES A GREAT JOB OF LOOKING AT THE POLES. WHAT YOU CAN SEE IS FIVE CYCLONES GATHERED AROUND THE SOUTH POLE IN A PENTAGON WITH ANOTHER CYCLONE IN THE CENTER. EIGHT CYCLONES GATHERED AROUND THE NORTH POLE WITH ANOTHER CYCLONE IN THE CENTER. THAT PATTERN IS PRETTY STABLE. WE'VE BEEN WATCHING IT FOR ALMOST TWO YEARS NOW, AND IT HASN'T CHANGED. THEY'RE SLOWLY DRIFTING AROUND A LITTLE BIT, BUT IT'S BASICALLY THIS STABLE PATTERN OF FIVE IN THE SOUTH, EIGHT IN THE NORTH. WE DON'T KNOW WHY IT'S FIVE, WE DON'T KNOW WHY IT'S EIGHT. PEOPLE ARE WORKING ON THEORIES ABOUT WHY THE CYCLONES SHOULD BE THERE AND COMING UP WITH MODELS TO EXPLAIN IT, BUT THIS WAS A BIG SURPRISE. IF YOU LOOK CAREFULLY AT THIS, THERE'S ANOTHER INTERESTING FEATURE, THEY ARE ALL SPINNING THE SAME DIRECTION, IF YOU IMAGINE THIS CYCLONE SPINNING AROUND AND THE ONE NEXT TO IT SPINNING AROUND, AND PICTURE WHAT HAPPENS IN BETWEEN, AND WITH THIS ONE IN THE CENTER IS SPINNING THE SAME DIRECTION, WHAT HAPPENS IN BETWEEN, IT'S NOT LIKE GEARS THAT CAN SPIN AND MATCH UP. TO DO THAT, YOU'D HAVE TO HAVE SOME OF THEM SPINNING IN THE OPTE DIRECTION. IN THE PLACE RIGHT IN BETWEEN THE CYCLONES, YOU'VE GOT WIND GOING REALLY FAST IN THIS DIRECTION AND RIGHT NEXT TO IT, WIND GOING REALLY FAST IN THE OPPOSITE DIRECTION. SOMETHING HAS TO BE DRIVING THAT SO THEY DON'T ALL STOP OR SWALLOW EACH OTHER OR DO SOMETHING TO CHANGE THAT SITUATION. THIS IS A REALLY INTERESTING PUZZLE FOR THE ATMOSPHERIC FOLKS TO WORK ON. THAT WAS PROBABLY OUR FIRST BIG SURPRISE AT JUPITER WAS SEEING ALL THESE STORMS AND SEEING HOW DIFFERENT THE POLES LOOK. WITH THE INFRARED CAMERA, YOU CAN ALSO LEARN ABOUT NOT JUST, YOU CAN SEE IN THE DARK, SO YOU GET A CLEANER PICTURE, BUT YOU'RE SEEING THE TEMPERATURE IN THE INFRARED. YOU'RE SEEING THE GLOW FROM THE FACT THAT THESE GASES ARE WARM, AND WARMER GASES FLOW MORE, SO BY MEASURING HOW BRIGHT IT IS, YOU'RE MEASURING WHAT ITS TEMPERATURE IS, AND JUPITER IS WARMER ON THE INSIDE THAN IT IS ON THE OUTSIDE. THE REASON IS THAT IT'S STILL COOLING OFF FOUR AND A HALF BILLION YEARS AFTER IT FORMED. IT'S SO BIG, THAT ITS HEAT OF FORMATION HASN'T ESCAPED YET. THE RESULT OF THATS IFOU KNOW THE TEMPERATURE, YOU KNOW SOMETHING ABOUT THE DEPTH, SO WE WERE ABLE TO MAKE THIS LITTLE MOVE MOVIE AND SHOW IN 3-D SOMETHING LIKE WHAT THOSE CYCLONES LOOK LIKE. THESE THINGS ARE THOUSANDS OF KILOMETERS ACROSS. WE COULD TALK ABOUT JUST THE POLES OF JUPITER FOR AN HOUR, BUT LET'S MOVE ON. REMEMBER I SAID, WE ARE MAPPING JUPITER'S MAGNETIC FIELD. BECAUSE WE'RE IN A POLAR ORBIT AND A LONG ONE AT 53 DAYS, WE CAN TAKE ADDING VANTAGE AND ADJUST THE TIMING OF WHEN WE GO BY JUPITER EACH TIME TO DEALT DIFFERENT STRIPE. YOU'RE SEEING LINES TO REPRESENT THE PATH OF THE SPACECRAFT IN THE ROTATING POINT OF VIEW OF JUPITER. IF YOU WERE SOMEHOW MAGICALLY STANDING ON TOP OF THE CLOUDS OF JUPITER AND SPINNING AROUND WITH IT, THAT'S THE PATH YOU WOULD SEE THE SPACECRAFT TAKE FOR EACH OF OUR MANY ORBITS. WHICH MEANS, WHEN WE'RE DONE WITH ALL OF THE ORBITS, WE'VE CAST A NET OVER THE PLANET AND IF WE MEASURE THE MAGNETIC FEED ON THE WAY ALONG ALL OF THOSE OR BITS, WE'RE SURROUNDED JUPITER AND MEASURED THE MAGNETIC FIELD COMPLETELY AROUND IT. IF YOU KNOW ABOUT ELECTROMAGNETICS WHAT THAT TELLS YOU IF I MEASURED THE MAGNETIC FIELD ON THE SURFACE, THEN I'VE LEARNED WHAT HAPPENED WITH THE KURTZ INSIDE THAT SURFACE. IF I MEASURE THE MAGNETIC FIELD ALL THE WAY AROUND JUPITER THEN I KNOW WHAT THAT LIQUID METALLIC HYDROGEN IS DOING DEEP INSIDE. WE CAN UNDERSTAND THE DYNAMO BY MEASURING THE FIELD ON A COMPLETE SURFACE THAT ENCLOSES THE PLANET. THAT'S THE GOAL OF THE MAPPING EXPERIMENT. OF COURSE WE'VE ONLY COMPLETED A DOZEN OR SO OR BITS SO FAR, AND AS YOU SAW IN THAT MAP, WE DO THEM IN AN ORDER SO THAT THE FIRST FOUR O EVENLY SPACED AND THEN THE NEXT FOUR FILL IN SO THAT WE GET EIGHT EVENLY SPACED AROUND THE PLANET. YOU NEED EIGHT MORE TO GET 16 FILLED IN AROUND THE PLANET. WE'VE GOT EIGHT EVENLY SPACED OR BITS AROUND THE PLANET SO FAR AND A FEW OTHERS THAT WILL GO INTO THE NEXT MAP, BUT THE MAGNETOMETER TEAM MADE A MAP OF MAGNETIC FIELD ON JUPITER BASED ON THOSE, ON THE EIGHT GOOD ONES SO FAR, RIGHT, THAT WERE EVENLY SPACED AND THAT WAS A BIG SURPRISE. WHAT'S BEING SHOWN HERE, WE'RE JUST SUPER IMPOSING ON JUPITER A MAP OF THAT MAGNETIC FIELD WHERE IT SHOWS YOU THE STRING OF THE MAGNETIC FIELD AND IT SHOWS YOU THE DIRECTION OF THE MAGNETIC FIELD. BLUE SHOWS YOU THE DIRECTION INTO THE PLANET AND OUT OF THE PLANET. IT DOESN'T LOOK LIKE A DEPOSED FIELD LIKE THE EARTH. IT'S GOT ALL KINDS OF SPATIAL VARIATION, MUCH LIKE ON A FINER SCALE THAN WE EXPECTED, SO MORE VARIABLE ON SMALLER PATCHES ON THE PLANET. RIGHT? IT'S ALSO GOT A WHOLE LOT MORE VARIATION IN THE NORTH PART OF THE PLANET THAN IN THE SOUTH. I'M GOING TO RUN THAT LITTLE MOVIE AGAIN, JUST BECAUSE IT GOES BY KIND OF FAST. SO YOU CAN SEE IT AGAIN AND WATCH FOR IT THIS TIME AS YOU SEE HOW THIS MAP SHOWS UP. WE HAVE ALL THESE WIGGLES UP IN THE NORTHERN HEMISPHERE AND A BLUE SPOT SHOWING UP NEAR THE EQUATOR, SO A LOCAL PLACE WHERE THE MAGNETIC FIELD IS STRONGER SOMEHOW COMING OUT OF THE PLANET AND KIND OF SMOOTH IN THE SOUTH, SO IT'S ASYMMETRIC. IT'S GOT A LOT MORE VARIATION IN IT. IF YOU THINK ABOUT WHAT THAT MEANS, WHAT IT TELLS US ABOUT THE LIQUID METALLIC HYDROGEN DEEP INSIDE, IS I SAYS THAT AT LEAST PART OF IT, THE PART WITH ALL THOSE WIGGLES, PART OF THE MAGNETIC FIELD MUST HAVE BEEN GENERATED CLOSER TO THE SURFACE, BECAUSE IF IT WAS GENERATED WAY DOWN INSIDE, THEN WHAT WE WOULD MEASURE FROM OUR SPACECRAFT THAT STAYS UP ABOVE THE PLANET WOULD HAVE SMOOTHED OUT BY THE TIME IT GOT TO US. ALL OF THOSE WIGGLES ARE TELLING US THAT THE MAGNETIC FIELD IS GENERATED HIGHER UP IN JUPITER'S MASSIVE ATMOSPHERE THAN WE EXPECTED. SO INSTEAD OF BEING ALL OF IT GENERATED DOWN IN THE LIQUID METALLIC HYDROGEN, IT LOOKS LIKE PART OF THAT MAGNETIC FIELD IS JOHN RATED ABOVE THE LIQUID METALLIC HYDROGEN, MAYBE IN A PLACE WHERE THE GAS IS PARTLY IONIZED. WE HAVE TO TRY TO FIGURE OUT WHY IT'S SO ASYMMETRIC. WHY DOES THE NORTH LOOK DIFFERENT THAN THE SOUTH AND PEOPLE ARE WORKING ON IT, BUT AS YOU CAN IMAGINE, NOBODY EXPECTED THAT AND NOBODY HAS THAT WIRED YET FOR EXACTLY WHAT WAS GOING ON. SO THAT WAS THE NEXT BIG SURPRISE IS THE MAGNETIC FIELD JUST DOESN'T LOOK LIKE THE MODELS. MATCHES OUT GREAT FAR FROM THE PLANET WHERE WE HAD MODELS AND MEASURED BEFORE BUT THESE ARE THE FIRST MEASUREMENTS THAT GET REALLY CLOSE TO THE PLANET, YOU DO A FIRST KIND OF MEASUREMENT, YOU GET SURPRISED. LET'S MOVE ON TO THE NEXT MAJOR MEASUREMENT WE DO THAT'S DIFFERENT THAN ANYTHING THAT'S BEEN DONE BEFORE IS THE MICROWAVE RAID I DON'T MEAN AT HER. AS OUR SPACECRAFT GOES BY, IT SPINS AND THE MAKE CROW WADE I DON'T MEAN AT HER IS NOT TRANSMITTING ANYTHING, JUST LOOKING AT THE NATURAL RADIO EMISSION FROM JUPITER. WE GET TO LOOK AT ANY GIVEN POINT ALONG THE PATH FROM A WIDE RAY OF ANGLES. EACH TIME IT SPINS, IT'S IN A DIFFERENT PLACE AND LOOKS AT JUPITER FROM A DIFFERENT ANGEL. I HAVE SIX DIFFERENT CHANNELS THAT SEE SIX DIFFERENT DEPTHS AND I LOOK AT THEM WITH EACH DIFFERENT CHANNEL AT EACH SPOT WITH A WIDE RANGE OF ANGLES. IT'S LIKE A CAT SCAN, I CAN DISSECT WHAT'S GOING ON INSIDE JUPITER. THE RAID I DON'T MEAN AT HER JUST MEASURES THE BRIGHTNESS. IT'S NOT MEASURING A PICTURE, BUT THE SPOT IT SEES GETSRETTY SMALL. THIS IS AN EXAMPLE TO SHOW YOU HOW SMALL THE SPOTS GET WHEN WE'RE REALLY CLOSE TO OUR CLOSEST APPROACH, RIGHT NEAR THE EQUATOR, WE CAN SEE THIS TINY LITTLE SPOT, WE'RE MEASURING PRETTY PRECISELY WE SEE ON JUPITER AND FURTHER AWAY WE'RE SEEING A BIG ARE PART OF THE PLANET. WHAT DID WE LEARN BY LOOKING BENEATH THE CLOUDS FOR THE VERY FIRST TIME? KILOMETERS BENEATH THE CLOUDS SO ON THE SCALE OF JUPITER, THAT'S TINY. RIGHT? IT LOOKS LIKE A THIN LINE THERE, BUT IF YOU THINK ABOUT WHAT THE PLANET'S MADE OUT OF, RIGHT, IT'S THIS GAS GIANT, ALL HYDROGEN AND HELIUM AND ALL OTHER STUFF THAT SHOULD BE SWIRLING AROUND GAS. WHAT EVERYBODY THOUGHT BEFORE THE SPACECRAFT GOT TO JUPITER WAS AS SOON AS YOU GET DEEP ENOUGH TO GET BELOW THE CLOUDS, SO YOU GET BELOW WHERE WATER AND MOAN I CAN'T, BECAUSE THERE'S MOAN I CAN'T ON THE PLANET, WHERE THEY CONDENSE AND MAKE CLOUDS, ONCE YOU GET BELOW THAT, YOU SHOULD BE BELOW THE WEATHER LAYER, BELOW ALL THE STORMS, AND IT SHOULD JUST BE EVENLY MIXED. SO WHAT WE THOUGHT WAS OUR DEEPEST CHANNELS TO SEE AS FAR INTO THE PLANET AS WE CAN BE A A FEW HUNDREDILOMETERS, SINCE THEY'RE SEEING WELL BELOW ALL THOSE CLOUDS, THEY SHOULD HAVE FOUND THE SAME THING EVERYWHERE WE LOOKED AND ALL THE STRUCTURE SHOULD HAVE BEEN UP ABOVE THE CLOUDS, OR UP IN THE AREA WHERE THE CLOUDS ARE AND HIGHER. WELL, YOU KNOW THE THEME OF THIS, SO YOU KNOW WHAT I'M GOING TO SAY, DIDN'T LOOK ANYTHING LIKE THAT, SO WHAT WE DID, THE EASIEST THING TO DO FIRST, SO THAT'S WHAT I'M SHOWING YOU, IS TO MEASURE THE OWE PASS CITY, HOW MUCH IT ABSORBS THE MICRO WAVES. MEASURE THE MOAN I CAN'T WAS THE SIMPLEST THING TO DO FIRST. WHAT WE FOUND WHEN WE DID THAT, YOU TAKE THIS STRIP CLOSE TO THE PLANET, SPREAD IT OUT AND PLOT UP AT THE TOP OF THE CLOUDS MUCH MOAN I CAN'T THERE IS USINGS COLOR TO SHOW THE MOAN I CAN'T AND DOWN AT THE BOTTOM HOW MUCH MOAN I CAN'T THERE IS AND EVERYTHING IN BETWEEN, WHAT WE SEE IS AS DEEP AS WE CAN SEE, WE'RE SEEING STRUCTURE IN THE MOAN I CAN'T. WE'RE SEEING THIS PLACE NORTH OF THE EQUATOR, JUST NORTH OF THE EQUATOR, WHERE THE MOAN I CAN'T SEEMS TO BE UNIFORM ABOUT DEPTH, OR MAYBE EVEN GETTING TO BE MORE MOAN I CAN'T UP AT THE TOP THAN DOWN AT THE BOTTOM AND RIGHT NEXT TO IT, JUST NORTH OF IT, THERE'S THIS PLACE WHERE THERE'S A WHOLE BUNCH OF MOAN I CAN'T MISSING BEFORE IT GETS DOWN TO THE WELL MIXED PART AND THIS PART ALL THE WAY AT THE BOTTOM, WE'RE SHOWING THAT AS THE SAME MOAN I CAN'T ALL THE WAY ACROSS, THAT'S BECAUSE THAT'S THE DEEPEST WE CAN SEE. WE DON'T KNOW HOW MUCH MOAN I CAN'T THERE IS ALL THE WAY DOWN AT THE BOTTOM BEYOND THAT, SO WE SAID WELL, IF IT'S WELL MIXED, HOW DEEM CAN WE SHOW THAT IT'S NOT WELL MIXED AND IT'S AS DEEP AS WE CAN LOOK. IT COULD HAVE STRUCTURE THAT GOES EVEN DEEPER THAN THAT. THEN WE SEE IF YOU LOOK CAREFULLY, MORE MOAN I CAN'T OVER HERE AND SOME MISSING AS YOU GO DOWN AND MORE BELOW THAT. THIS WAS A COMPLETE SURPRISE AND A BIG MYSTERY AS TO WHAT THE HECK'S GOING ON. PEOPLE HAVE BEEN WORKING ON THAT FORMA LONG TIME NOW WE'RE WORKING ON HOW THIS CAN HAPPEN AND WT IT SAYS ABOUT CIRCULATION DEEP WITHIN THE PLANET. REMEMBER OUR ORBIT GETS REALLY CLOSE HERE AROUND IS NOT AS CLOSE TO JUPITER UP HERE OVER THE POLES, BUT AS THE ORBIT PROGRESSES, EACH ORBIT SHIFTS A LITTLE BIT, SO THAT CLOSEST SUPPORT PART STARTS NEAR THE EQUATOR AND MOVES UP A DEGREE EVERY ORBIT, BY ORBIT 30, WE'LL BE UP HERE AND GETTING DATA UP IN THAT PART OF THE PLANET. ANYWAY, WE HAVE I'LL SHOW YOU THE FIRST NINE OR 10 OR BITS THS IS DEPTH, IT'S WRITTEN IN PRESSURE, BUT THINK OF THAT AS UP AT THE TOP OF THE ATMOSPHERE AND THERE THIS IS 350 KILOMETERN INSIDE. AS YOUING AROUND THE PLANET AND LOOK AT THE MULTIPLE STRIPES WE'VE GOT, THERE IS MORE AMMONIA UP HERE THAN DOWN HERE, BUT THIS ZONE OF MONA THAT SPREADS ALL THE WAY UP TO THE TOP IS THERE AT THAT LATITUDE EVERYWHERE AROUND THE PLANET. IT'S LIKE A RING AROUND THE PLANET AT A LATITUDE OF A FEW DEGREES NORTH OF THE EQUATOR. WHY IS IT AT THE EQUATOR ALMOST? WHY IS IT NORTH AND NOT SOUTH? WHY IS IT NOT MATCHING UP WITH THE BELTS AND ZONES VERY WELL THAT WE SEE AT THE SURFACE? NOBODY REALLY KNOWS. WHY IS THERE AMMONIA MISSING HERE? WHY IS THERE THIS IN VERSION? THESE ARE ALL PUZZLES WE'RE TRYING TO FIGURE OUT WITH LOTS OF IDEAS, BUT WE NEED A LOT MORE DATA TO TRY TO FIGURE THEM OUT. WE NEED TO SPEND A LOT MORE TIME BASICALLY BUILDING NEW THEORIES, BECAUSE WE MADE THE THEY ARORRISTS THROW OUT ALL THE THEORIES THEY HAD, WHICH WAS REALLY LOTS OF FUN. YOU CAN ALSO BY LOOKING AT THAT, WE HAVE LOTS OF LONGITUDES NOW, SEE OTHER THINGS THAT ARE REALLY NICE TO SEE AS AN EXPERIMENTALIST. THE FACT THAT WE'RE GETTING THE SAME ANSWER OVER AND OVER IS REALLY GOOD. IT MEANS OUR INSTRUMENTS ARE NICE AND STABLE. IF THERE WERE PROBLEMS WITH THE INSTRUMENT, WE'RE GENERATING MORE NOISE THAN WE THOUGHT IT WAS OR WE HAD THE GAIN WRONG OR THINGS LIKE THAT, WE WOULDN'T GET THIS NICE PICTURE. WE CAN ALSO SEE LITTLE DETAILS AS YOU GO TO DIFFERENT LONGITUDES. IF YOU WATCH OVER HERE, FOR EXAMPLE, YOU CAN SEE SOMETIMES THERE'S MORE OR LESS AMMONIA OVER HERE, THIS THING MOVES AROUND, THAT VARIES A LITTLE BIT AND EVERY ONCE IN A WHILE, WE SEE SOMETHING AT GREAT DEPTH AND THAT THING WE'RE SEEING THAT COMES DOWN HERE AT ABOUT MINUS 20 DEGREES LATITUDE AT GREAT DEPTH IS THE GREAT RED SPOT. ONE OF OUR PASSES WE FLEW RIGHT OVER THE GREAT RED SPOT AND WHAT WE FOUND WAS ANOTHER BIG SURPRISE, WHICH IS THE GREAT RED SPOT GOES AS DEEP AS WE CAN SEE, SO ABOUT 350 KILOMETERS AT LEAST. THE MODELS, PEOPLE HAD THEORIES ABOUT HOW THE GREAT RED SPOT WORKED AND MODELS PREDICTING WHAT IT WOULD BE AND IN GENERAL EXPECTED IT TO BE A LOT SHALLOWER THAN THAT. NOW WE HAVE TO EXPLAIN WHY IS THE GREAT RED SPOT SO DEEP AND HOW DOES IT WORK. WE HAVE SOME PEOPLE WORKING ON THAT AND SOME PAPERS THAT WILL COME OUT BEFORE TOO LONG AND I PROBABLY SHOULDN'T SPILL THE BEANS ON THOSE PAPERS UNTIL WE KNOW THAT EVERYTHING'S RIGHT, BUT YOU CAN TELL TO LOOK AT IT, IF YOU LOOK AT THIS PICTURE AT THE TOP, THAT'S THE VISIBLE LIGHT PICTURE, SO YOU CAN SEE WHERE THE GREAT RED SPOT IS AND THEN YOU CAN SEE FROM THE RED HERE THAT WE'VE GOT THE CENTER OF THE GREAT RED SPOT LOOKING COLD IN THE UPPER CHANNELS, SO I GET DOWN TO 10 TO 30 KILOMETERS OR SO, MAYBE 50 TO 80 KILOMETERS AND THE GREAT RED SPOT IS COLD IN THE MIDDLE, BUT WHEN I GET DOWN TO 150 KILOMETERS OR 350 KILOMETERS, THE GREAT RED SPOT IS HOT IN THE MIDDLE. YOU STILL SEE IT. IT STILL DEFINITELY LOOKS DIFFERENTLY FROM ALL THE OTHER PASSES THAT DIDN'T GO OVER THE GREAT RED SPOT. LOOKS DIFFERENT THAN THE SURROUNDING TERRITORY, BUT SOMETHING IS CHANGING. IT'S GOING FROM HOT TO COLD AS WE GO DOWN AND THERE'S THIS HOT REGION JUST TO THE SIDE OF IT THAT'S CHANGING AND MERGING DOWN WITH THE BOTTOM. SO WE'RE DEFINITELY GETTING VERY INTERESTING PICTURE OF THIS STORM. REMEMBER, IT'S A STORM BIGGER THAN THE WHOLE EARTH, AND A LOT TO CHEW ON, SO I CAN TELL YOU IT'S A SURPRISE, BUT I DON'T GET TO TELL YOU OH, THIS IS WHAT'S GOING ON AND THIS IS HOW IT WORKS, BECAUSE WE DON'T HAVE THAT ALL FIGURED OUT YET. OK, SO LET'S MOVE ON TO THE NEXT BIG THING, WHICH WAS THE GRAVITY. GRAVITY IS TRYING TO MEASURE THE INTERIOR AND ONE OF THE FIRST THINGS WE GOT OUT OF THE GRAVITY, THE BELTS AND ZONES, THE STRIPES, THE JET STREAMS MOVING AT THE TOP OF JUPITER'S ATMOSPHERE. NOBODY KNEW HOW DEEP THEY WENT. THEORIES WENT ALL THE WAY DOWN TO DEEP INSIDE THE PLANET TO BEING REALLY SHALLOW UP AT THE TOP. NOW WE KNOW THEY GO ABOUT 3,000 KILOMETERS INTO JUPITER AND THAT'S WHAT THIS LITTLE ANIMATION IS SHOWING. BENEATH THE 3,000 KILOMETERS, THE REST OF JUPITER ROTATES KIND OF LIKE A SOLID BODY. REMEMBER, IT'S NOT A SOLID BODY, IT'S A LIQUID DOWN INSIDE THERE, BUT IT ROW TAILLIGHTS ALL TOGETHER BELOW ABOUT 3,000 KILOMETERS. WE LEARNED THAT FROM THE GRAVITY. THAT THE BETS AND ZONES GO THAT DEEP IS INTERESTING AND THE INTERIOR ROW THAT'S AS A SOLID BODY WAS A SURPRISE. IT'S INTERESTING THAT IT'S ABOUT 3,000 CONTROL KILOMETERS SO IT COULD BE THAT THE MAGNETIC FIELD HAS SOMETHING TO DO WITHHOLDING THE INSIDE PART AND WHY THE BETS AND ZONES ONLY GO THAT DEEP. BASIC LIVE IT WOULD BE THEY'RE GOING AS DEEP AS THEY CAN UNTIL THE MAGNETIC FIELD INTERFERENCE WITH THEM. WE DON'T KNOW THAT YET, IT'S SPECULATION. THE OTHER THING THATE'VE LEARNED, REMEMBER WE WERE LOOKING FOR THE CORE, A DENSE CORE DOWN INSIDE JUPITER, SO WHAT WE FOUND IS YES, THERE'S A DENSE CORE, BUT INSTEAD OF A COMPACT CORE DOWN IN THE MIDDLE WHERE DID YOU GO DOWN AND THE DENSITY IS, YOU KNOW, THE GAS AND LIQUID AND EVERYTHING AND WHEN YOU GET TO THE EDGE OF THE CORE, YOU GET A SHARP BOUNDARY AND NOW WE'RE IN THE DENSE PART, WHAT WE FOUND IS SOMETHING BIGGER THAN THAT AND FUZZIER THAN THAT, LIKE MAYBE IT'S DISSOLVING IN THE LIQUID OR SOMETHING, SO WE FOUND THIS BIG FUZZY CORE DOWN INSIDE JUPITER, AND NOW WE'RE LOOKING TO SEE IF THERE'S AN EVEN DENSER ONE INSIDE THAT, WHICH WILL TAKE A WHOLE LOT MORE GRAVITY MEASUREMENTS, BUT AGAIN, IT WAS A BIG SURPRISE. THERE'S A REASON WE'RE CALLING THIS THE NEW JUPITER. ALL OUR IDEAS ABOUT JUPITER OF THE THINGS WE HADN'T MEASURED YET WERE WRONG. WE HAVE A NEW PICTURE OF JUPITER NOW. SO THAT'S THE EXCITING STUFF, SOME OF THE EXCITING STUFF FROM THE GRAVITY. I BETTER HURRY IF I WANT TO HAVE TIME FOR QUESTIONS, SO LETS TALK ABOUT THE MAG NIETO SPHERE, THE AURORA. THAT ALSO WAS A LOT OF BIG SURPRISES. THEY'RE A LOT MORE COMPLEX THAN WE EXPECTED. WHAT YOU'RE LOOKING AT HERE ARE ULTRAVIOLET IMAGES OF THE AURORA WHERE WE'VE TAKEN LOTS AND LOTS OF PICTURES AND ADDED THEM UP TO MAKE A COMPOSITE OF THE AVERAGE OF THE NORTHERN AND SOUTHERN LIGHTS. HOW MANY PEOPLE HAVE BEEN UP TO SEE THE NORTHERN LIGHTS OR DOWN SOUTH TO SEE THE SOUTHERN LIGH? SO A SMATTERING OF ANYWAY. TO GIVE YOU AN IDEA OF COMPARISON, RIGHT, SOMETHING TO SCALE IT WITH, THIS AURORAL CIRCLE, IF I PLOT THE EARTH DOWN ON THAT IT, THE WHOLE EARTH, MAYBE IT WOULD FIT IN THERE SOMEWHERE, SO THESE ARE ENORMOUS. THE AURORAL LIGHTS ON JUPITER, THE NORTHERN AND SOUTHERN LIGHTS ARE THESE ENORMOUS DISPLAYS WAS RAW POWER FROM PARTICLES SMACKING INTO THE ATMOSPHERE, AND THERE'S AN AURORAL OVAL THAT WE CAN SEE FROM EARTH AND WE'VE SEEN THAT GLOW AND LEARNED ABOUT THE AURORA FROM EARTH, BUT THEN WE ONLY SEE IT FROM THE SIDE, SO WE'RE ONLY SEEING IT ALSO IT COMES AROUND IN OUR POINT OF VIEW AND WE DIDN'T REALLY GET A GOOD LOOK. NOW WE HAVE GREAT PICTURES AND GREAT MEASUREMENTS WITH THE PARTICLE EXPERIMENTS THAT MEASURE THE PARTICLES THAT HIT THE SPACECRAFT AND WE SEE THAT THE AURORA ARE REALLY COMPLEX AND THERE IS ALL THIS STRUCTURE GOING ON BOTH HERE AND IN THE CENTER. IF YOU LOOK AT IT IN THE INFRARED, YOU GET TO SEE AN AMAZING AMOUNT OF STRUCTURE, SO YOU SEE THIS MAIN AURORAL OVAL, BUT THERE'S ALL SORTS OF STUFF IN THE POLAR CAP WE DIDN'T REALIZES WERE THERE. THERE'S THIS TAIL AROUND IT, IT'S EASY TO SEE IN THE NEXT PICTURE. THE MOON LEAVE A MARK MAT AURORA. THAT LEAVES THE BIGGEST TAIL. IT'S THIS LONG TAIL CAUSED BY JUPITER'S MOON, I.O. AND WE GET TO SEE AN AMAZING AMOUNT HAVE STRUCTURE AND THINGS GOING ON IN THERE, AS WELL. WE'RE LEARNING ABOUT THE AURORA OF JUPITER AND WE'RE LEARNING THAT IT'S MUCH MORE COMPLICATED THAN WE EXPECTED, THAT WE SEE FOR EXAMPLE THE MECHANISM THAT MAKES THE BRIGHTEST STRONGEST AURORA ON THE EARTH, WE SEE THAT ACCELERATION MECHANISM, THE WAY THE PARTICLES GET SPED UP AND IT MAKES SOME OF THE STRONG AURORA BUT NOT THE STRONGEST PART. THE REALLY STRONGEST PART OF THE AURORA WE SEE IS SOME OTHER MECHANISM THAT WE HAVEN'T FIGURED OUT YET FOR HOW THOSE PAICLES GET ACCELERATED. LOOKING F ACCELERATION REGIONS TO SEE WHERE PARTICLES ARE STREAMING DOWN OR MAYBE SOME OF THEM ARE COMING UP FROM JUPITER'S ATMOSPHERE. THERE'S A LOT TO LEARN AND I NEED TO GIVE SOME TIME FOR QUESTIONS. I'M GOING TO MOVE ON TO ONE MORE THING THAT WE LEARNED, WHICH IS A NEW RADIATION BELT AROUND JUPITER, ANOTHER SURPRISE, SO THE HIGH ENERGY PARTICLE EXPERIMENT, THE JEDI INSTRUMENT IT'S CALLED, JOVIAN ENERGETIC PROTECTION OF IONS, IMAGINE IT COMING IN AROUND THE FRONT AND BEHIND THE PLANET, AS WELL, VERY CLOSE TO JUPITER OF IONS THAT WE DIDN'T EXPECT. SULFUR AND HYDROGEN ION WITNESS BE WE THINK THEY PROBABLY STARTED OCCUPANT AT AT TOMS THAT WERE IONIZED, HAD THEIR ELECTRONS STRIPPED OFF WHEN THEY HID JUPITER'S ATMOSPHERE AND CREATED THIS BELT OF IONS TRAPPED REALLY CLOSE TO THE PLANET THAT WE'RE FLYING THROUGH, SO THAT WAS ANOTHER DISCOVERY. ALL RIGHT, GETTING THERE. SO, ANOTHER DISCOVERY THAT WE MADE IS ACTUALLY MORE ABOUT PEOPLE THAN ABOUT JUPITER, WHICH IS BECAUSE THE VISIBLE LIGHT CAMERA ON JUNO, CALLED JUNO CAM, WE SET IT UP BASICALLY AS A CITIZEN SCIENCE EXPERIMENT. IT'S A CAMERA WITHOUT A REAL MAJOR SCIENCE TEAM TO TRY TO INTERPRET ALL THE DATA. WE BASICALLY TOOK THE RAW DATA FROM THAT CAMERA, PUT IT OUT ON THE WEB AND SAID HEY, EVERYBODY, GO PLAY. WHEN WE WERE PLANNING WHICH IMAGES TO TAKE, WE COLLECTED INPUT FROM THE PUBLIC ABOUT WHICH IMAGES TO TAKE FROM JUPITER. WHEN WE WERE TRYING TO GET CONTEXT OF WHAT DOES JUPITER LOOK LIKE NOW, BECAUSE IT'S A GAS GIANT, CONSTANTLY CHANGING, WE COLLECTED IMAGES FROM AMATEUR PHOTOGRAPHERS. WE LET THE PUBLIC VOTE ON THINGS AND PUT THE RAW DATA OUT ON THE WEB AND LET ANYONE WHO WANTED TO PLAY WITH THE DATA. WHEN YOU TAKE DATA FROM A CAMERA OUT IN SPACE, YOU HAVE TO PUT ALL THE PIECES TOGETHER AND COLLECT, YOU KNOW, A RED, GREEN AND BLUE IMA TOGETHER INTO A COLOR IMAGE. THEN YOU HAVE TO WORK ON MATCHING UP WHEN YOU TAKE A PICTURE HERE AND A PICTURE HERE, PUT THEM TOGETHER TO MAK A MOSAIC TAKING INTO ACCOUNT THAT THE PLANET IS CURVED, ALL THAT STUFF THAT IS NORMALLY DONE BY A TEAM OF PERFORM SCIENTISTS HAS BEEN DONE BY VOLUNTEERS AND THEY'VE DONE AN AMAZING JOB. IT'S ABSOLUTELY SPECTACULAR. WHAT WE LEARNED IS IF YOU LET PEOPLE PLAY, THEY'LL DO AMAZING THINGS. SO THERE ARE SOME, I HESITATE TO CALL THEM AMATEURS. THERE ARE SOME CITIZEN SCIENTISTS OUT THERE WHO DON'T GET PAID TO DO THE SCIENCE, BUT SOME OF THEM IN THEIR DAY JOBS GET PAID TO DO OTHER KINDS OF IMAGE PROCESSING AND SOME ARE MATHEMATICIANS, SOME ARTISTS AND THEY'VE MADE AMAZING IMAGES. THIS IS JUST A SNAPSHOT, I WENT I DON'T KNOW A WEEK OR SO AGO TO THE WEBSITE WHERE ALL THIS STUFF GETS POSTED AND SNAPPED AN IMAGE TO SHOW YOU, AND YOU CAN SEE IF YOU LOOK THROUGH HERE SOME OF THESE ARE USEFUL FOR GETTING AT THE SCIENCE, AND LOOKING AT ALL THOSE CYCLONES AND STORMS AND STUDYING THINGS AND SOME OF THEM ARE ARTISTIC IMAGES, WHERE PEOPLE HAVE DONE, I THINK THIS ONE IS SOMEBODY'S TAKEN A PICTURE OF JUPITER AND MADE IT LOOK LIKE A PAINTING. A LOT OF ARTISTS GOT INVOLVED AND A LOT OF PEOPLE, AMATEUR ASTRONOMERS WHO KNOW A LOT ABOUT JUPITER GOT INVOLVED AND THERE'S BEEN ALL KINDS OF THINGS COMING OUT OF THIS, INCLUDING A LOT OF SCIENCE, SO THE MESSAGE THERE IS IF YOU CROWD SOURCE THE SCIENCE TO A BUNCH OF CITIZEN SCIENTISTS, THEY'LL DO AMAZING, GREAT WORK. OK. AND WE ALSO HAVE STUDENT SCIENTISTS, SO ONE OF MY OTHER HATS IS THE LEAD SCIENTIST FOR THE COLD STONE APPLE VALLEY TELESCOPE PROJECT. I WASN'T GOING TO LET THIS OPPORTUNITY GO BY WITHOUT TELLING YOU ABOUT THAT. THAT'S A PROJECT WHERE STUDENTS ALL OVER THE COUNTRY OVER THE INTERNET RUN A LARGE RADIO TELESCOPE THAT BELONGS TO NASA. IT'S 34 METERS ACROSS, SO A THIRD OF A FOOTBALL FIELD AND THEY DO REAL STRONG ASTRONOMY WITH IT. JUPITER IS SURROUNDED BY THESE RADIATION BETS THAT GIVE OFF RADIO WAVES. WE HAVE AN EXPERIMENT THAT LOOKS AT THE RADIO WAVES FROM THE PLANET. IF YOU'RE TRYING TO LOOK AT IT FROM EARTH, YOU HAVE THIS BRIGHT RADIO LIGHT SUNSHINING IN YOUR EYES, IT'S HARD TO SEE THE PLANET IN BETWEEN. IF YOU'RE WHERE JUNO GOES, THIS BRIGHT LIGHT IS LOOKING OVER YOUR SHOULDER, MOSTLY YOU GET TO EE THE PLANET, BUT A LITTLE BIT LEAKS IN SO YOU HAVE TO SUBTRACT THE RADIO LIGHT FROM THE RADIATION BETS. THE STUDENTS ARE MEASURING THAT FROM THE EARTH WITH THE RADIO TELESCOPE AND THAT CONTRIBUTES TO OUR MODEL OF THE RADIO AT JUPITER, SO THEY'RE ACTUALLY CONTRIBUTING TO THE PROJECT. SO WE HAVE REAL STUDENTS DOING REAL SCIENCE AND PART OF THE REAL SCIENCE THEY'RE DOING IS WORKING WITH JUNO TO SUPPLY SCIENCE DATA THAT WE NEED, AND THAT MEANS THE JUNO SCIENCE TEAM PARTICIPATES IN THE CLASS AND WE HAVE A FEW TEACHER TRAININGS COMING UP IF YOU KNOW ANY TEACHERS THAT WOULD LIKE TO GET INVOLVED DOING REAL RADIO AS STRONG KNEE WORKING WITH A JUNO TEAM AND OTHER PROFESSIONAL ASTRONOMERS, THEY CAN FIND OUT ABOUT IT WITH THE WEBSITE. THERE'S ON LINE TRAINING AND SO FORTH, AS WELL. OK. SO, FINALLY GOT TO THE PART WHERE WE GET TO ASK QUESTIONS, WHICH IS MY FAVORITE PART, AND I PUT A BRUNCH OF WEBSITES UP THERE IN CASE YOU HAVEUESTIONS YOU'D RATHER LOOK UP OR IF YOU WANTED TO SEE SOME OF THE 80 SOMETHING PAPERS I MENTIONED THAT ARE ALREADY PUBLISHED THAT I DIDN'T GET TO TALK ABOUT, BUT WHY DON'T WE OPEN IT UP FOR ANY QUESTIONS THAT YOU DO HAVE TO ASK ME. YEAH. >> A SIMILAR SPACECRAFT HAS BEEN SET TO SATURN, IS IT THE SAME KIND OF SCIENCE? >> I'M GOING TO REPEAT THE QUESTION, BECAUSE PEOPLE WHO ARE WATCHING IT ON LINE OR SEE THE VIDEO LATER WON'T BE ABLE TO TELL WHAT YOU ASKED, AND I'M ALSO GOING TO MENTION WHICH I WAS SUPPOSED TO DO FIRST, IF YOU HAVE A QUESTION, THERE'S A MICROPHONE OVER THERE, YOU CAN WAIT ON LINE TO ASK THE QUESTION. HIS QUESTION WAS WHETHER THERE'S A SIMILAR SPACECRAFT AT SATURN DOING SIMILAR MEASUREMENTS. THE CASSINI SPACECRAFT HAS BEEN MEASURING ALL KINDS OF THINGS DOING AMAZING SCIENCE, AND ITS ORIGINAL MISSION WAS NOT A LOT LIKE JUNO'S. IT WAS IN THE EQUATORIAL POINTS, LOOKING AT THE WHOLE SYSTEM AND LOOKING AT THE MOON TITAN AND IT HAD A PROBE THAT WENT IN AND DID ALL KINDS OF GREAT SCIENCE BUT IT WASN'T THE SAME KIND OF SCIENCE AS WE WERE DOING. WHEN THAT MISSION FINISHED AND THEY STILL HAD A WORKING SPACECRAFT AND STILL HAD FUEL LEFT, THEY STARTED WORKING ON EXTENDED MISSIONS TO DO OTHER THINGS AND IN THE VERY LAST STAGE OF THAT PROJECT, AT THE INSTIGATION OF SOME OF THE JUNO SCIENTISTS WHO WERE ALSO ON THE SATURN SCIENCE TEAM, THEY SAID NOW THAT WE'RE DOWN TO THE END, GO AHEAD AND TAKE A RISK WHY DON'T WE AND LET'S TO FLY IN A JUNO TYPE ORBIT PAST SATURN. THEY DID. THEY COULDN'T DO ALL THE SAME SCIENCE BECAUSE THEY DIDN'T BRING INSTRUMENTS FOR THAT PURPOSE. THE INSTRUMENTS THEY BROUGHT WERE FOR A COMPLETELY DIFFERENT MISSION BUT THEY WERE ABLE TO DO SOME OF IT AND THEY LEARNED SOME THINGS ABOUT THE INTERIOR OF SATURN, WHICH I'M SURE THEY'RE NOT READY TO PUBLISH YET BECAUSE IT'S NOT BEEN VERY LONGINCE THEY DID THAT, BUT WE'LL GET TO DO A LITTLE COMPARISON AND WE'LL GET TO SEE IN THE FUTURE WITH A PHYSICIAN LIKE JUNO WILL BE SENT OR TO URANUS OR NEPTUNE. >> I HAVE TWO QUESTIONS. THE FIRST IS IF YOU COULD SAY SOMETHING ABOUT THIS METALLIC LIQUID HYDROGEN. IS IT -- WHAT KIND OF VISCOSITY, IS IT LIKE LAVA OR SOMETHING. THE SECOND QUESTION IS MY UNDERSTANDING IS WHAT LITTLE WE KNOW ABOUT THE INTERIOR OF SATURN IS THERE MIGHT BE A LEVEL OF WHICH THERE IS LIKE PRECIPITATION OF HELIUM OR SOMETHING. IS THERE ANY KIND OF INTERESTING PRECIPITATION GOING ON INSIDE OF JUPITER? >> RIGHT, OK, SO LET'S START WITH THE LIQUID METALLIC HYDROGEN PART. I'M GOING TO GIVE YOU MY FAVORITE ANSWER, WHICH IS NOBODY KNOWS, BUT I CAN SAY A LITTLE BIT MORE ABOUT THAT. SO THE WAY WE KNOW THAT HYDROGEN WHEN YOU SQUEEZE IT ENOUGH SHOULD MAKE LIQUID METALLIC HYDROGEN ARE THEORIES WHERE YOU TAKE A SMALL PELLET OF HYDROGEN, ZAP IT WITH ENORMOUS POWERFUL LASERS AND FOR A TINY FRACTION OF A SECOND BEFORE IT EXPLODES, IT IMPLODES AND REACHES THIS REALLY HIGH PRESSURE. YOU TRY TO MEASURE ON WHAT'S GOING ON IN THAT VERY TINY FRACTION OF A SECOND. IT'S REALLY HARD TO DO THOSE MEASUREMENTS. FROM THOSE MEASUREMENTS AND MODELS OF WHAT HYDROGEN SHOULD LOOK LIKE UNDER GREAT PRESSURE. THEY MADE PREDICTIONS THAT IT SHOULD BECOME A METAL AT 2 MILLION TIMES THE PRESSURE HERE. THE BIGGEST PIECE OF INFORMATION TO VALIDATE THAT PREDICTION AND MAKE EVERYBODY SAY YEAH LIQUID METALLIC HYDROGEN IS REAL IS JUPITER HAS A MAGNETIC FIELD. WENEW JUPITER HAD A MAGNETIC FIELD FOR A LONG TIME BECAUSE EVEN BEFORE WE EVER GOT THERE, YOU CAN SEE THE RADIO WAVES FROM THE RADIATION BETS TRAPPED BY THE MAGNETIC FIELD. TO MAKE A MAGNETIC FIELD ON A PLANETARY SCALE, YOU NEED LIQUID THAT CONDUCTS ELECTRICITY. JUPITER IS MAINLY HYDROGEN AND HELIUM. YOU WEREN'T GOING TO HAVE MOLTEN IRON ON THE EARTH AND GENERATE NEAR AS BIG A MAGNETIC FIELD AS WE SEE ON JUPITER. JUST THE FACT THAT IT HAD A MAGNETIC FIELD CONFIRMED THE HYPOTHESIS, BUT WE DON'T HAVE GOOD MEASUREMENTS OF THE VISCOSITY OF LIQUID METALLIC HYDROGEN. IT'S MOVING AT REALLY HIGH PRESSURES. TEN TIMES T PRESSURE HERE ON THE EARTH, IT'S HARD TO TALK ABOUT THINGS A AS A LIQUID OR GAS OR SOLID. IT'S DIFFERENT. THAT'S KIND OF THE STATE OF KNOWLEDGE, AND WE'LL LEARN BY MEASURING THE MAGNETIC FIELD. REMEMBER, WE'RE GOING TO KEEP MAPPING AND GET A DETAILED MAP. WHENE FINALLY UNDERSTAND THE DYNAMO WELL, THAT WILL TEACH US ABOUT THE PROPEIES OF HYDROGEN, WHAT IT DOES UNDER GREAT PRESSURE. WE START WITH HOW DOES HYDROGEN BEHAVE. EVENTUALLY WE FIGURE OUT THE DYNAMO AND TELL US HOW LIED DEGREE JEN BEHAVES. >>TION. >> YES, THERE'S PROBABLY HELIUM RAIN GOING ON AT JUPITER. EXACTLY HOW MUCH AND WHERE IS SOMETHING WE'RE STILL WORKING ON, BUT SHOULD COME OUT OF OUR DATA. THERE'S WATER RAIN NO DOUBT ON JUPITER. WE SEE THAT IN, YOU KNOW, WE'VE SEEN LIGHTNING AT JUPITER BEFORE. WE KNOW THERE'S LIQUID AND SOLID WATER AND WATER IN THE GAS STATE. HOW DEEP THAT RAIN GOES, PROBABLY, WELL, POSSIBLY HAS SOMETHING TO DO WITH THAT BIZARRE STRUCTURE WE SAW IN THE AMMONIA AND HOW THE ATMOSPHERE WORKS AT A FEW HUNDRED KILOMETERS BELOW THE SURFACE, BUT WE DON'T KNOW THOSE ANSWERS YES. >> I WAS IN GRADUATE SCHOOL IN THE EARLY 1970'S AND THEY WERE TALKING ABOUT SPECULATION OF METALLIC HYDROGEN IN JUPITER THEN, WITHOUT ANY ABILITY TO MEASURE ANYTHING. THANK YOU. >> THANK YOU. >> ARE WE BEGINNING TO UNDERSTAND THE STARTLING DIFFERENCES BETWEEN JUPITER AND SATURN? >> WELL, WE'RE BEGINNING TO UNDERSTAND THE REALLY STARTLING DIFFERENCES BETWEEN JUPITER AND SATURN, BUT WE'VE GOT A WAYS TO GO STILL. JUST ALL THE SURFACE STUFF THAT YOU SEE. SATURN THAT GEOMETRIC SHAPES AT THE POLES THAT HAVE SOMETHING TO DO WITH HOW THE JET STREAMS WORK AND JUPITER HAS THIS COMPLETELY DIFFERENT CHAOTIC LOOKING STRUCTURE OUT OF CYCLONES TELLS YOU THAT THE ATMOSPHERES BEHAVE VERY DIFFERENTLY AND MAYBE THAT SHOULDN'T BE SO SURPRISING. JUPITER'S A LOT BIGGER THAN SATURN AND THE HEAT FLOW IN AND OUT OF IT IS DIFFERENCE, BUT IT WILL BE A WHILE I THINK BEFORE ANYBODY FEELS CONFIDENT SAYING OK, NOW I UNDERSTANDUPITER AND SATURN. >> HI. TWO QUESTIONS. FIRST ONE IS I'VE READ THAT JUNO IS THE FASTEST MAN MADE OBJECT THAT WE'VE EVER SENT OUT INTO TH COSMOS, BUT I'VE ALSO READ TH IT'S NOT QUITE THAT SIMPLE, BECAUSE I GUESS IT'S ALL RELATIVE. CAN YOU TALK ABOUT THAT TO THE EXTENT THAT YOU CAN IN A WAY I MIGHT UNDERSTAND TO ANSWER THAT QUESTION. THE SECOND QUESTION IS WHY DID YOU INCLUDE A GIANT CAN OPENER ON ONE OF THE PANELS? >> OK. IT'S NOT A GIANT CAN OPENER, BUT IT CERTAINLY DOES LOOK LIKE ONE OR A BOTTLE OPENER, ANYWAY. LET'S START WITH THE SPEED RECORD FOR FASTEST MAN MADE OBJECT. IF I TELL YOU I THROW A BASEBALL AND SAY HOW WAS DID I THROW IT, WELL, YOU CAN MEASURE HOW WAS IT WENT, YOU KNOW, HERE ON THE GROUND. IF I'M SITTING ON A MOVING TRAIN THAT'S GOING 100 MILES AN HOUR AND THROW THE BASEBALL, SUPPOSE I GOT A REALLY GOOD ARM AND CAN THROW IT AT 90 MILES AN HOUR, THE TRAIN'S MOVING AT 100, MAYBE I THREW IT AT 190 NOW BECAUSE THE TRAIN IS 100 MILES AN HOUR PLUS THE 90, OR IF THE TRAIN'S GOING THE OTHER DIRECTION, MAYBE ONLY 10 MILES AN HOUR. I HAVE TO DEFINE A REFERENCE FRAME. I HAVE TO SAY HOW WAS IS IT MOVING RELATIVE TO WHAT. OK. SO, IF I CHOOSE THE REFERENCE FRAME CAREFULLY, THEN I GET TO SAY THAT JUNO'S THE FASTEST THING EVER BUILT BY PEOPLE. I'M NOT SURE I'M GOING TO REMEMBER THIS EXACTLY RIGHT BUT I THINK THE WAY IT GOES IS IF YOU TAKE CAPE CANAVERAL, FLORIDA, AND YOU FOLLOW IT AND YOU SAY WHERE WE LAUNCHED FROM MOVING IN SPACE AS THE EARTH GOES AROUND THE SUN AND THE EARTH ROTATES AND JUNO MOVES OUT PAST THE SUN AND SO FORTH, THEN AT THE TIME WHEN JUNO HILT ITS CLOSEST APPROACH TO JUPITER IN ITS VERY FIRST TIME WHEN WE FIRED THE MAIN ENGINE TO SLOW DOWN SO THAT WE WOULD GO INTO ORBIT, BEFORE WE DID THAT, BEFORE WE FIRED THE ENGINE, WHEN IT WAS MOVING ITS FASTEST, I THINK IF I REMEMBER RIGHT, THAT'S THE REFERENCE FRAME IN WHICH YOU GET TO SAY IT'S FASTER THAN ANYTHING ELSE ANYBODY HAS EVER SENT. IT'S KIND OF A CHEAT, BUT IT DOES TELL YOU IT'S MOVING REALLY FAST AND THAT'S MOSTLY BECAUSE OF JUPITER'S ENORMOUS GRAVITY. SO ANOTHER WAY TO LOOK AT IT WOULD BE HOW WAS IS IT MOVING RELATIVE TO JUPITER, RIGHT, SO YOU IGNORE THE EARTH AND SUN AND ALL THE MOTIONS WE DID TO GET THERE AND SAY WHAT'S THE SPEED OF THE SPACECRAFT WHEN IT FLIES BY JUPITER COMPARED TO THE CLOUD TOPS THAT IT'S FLYING BY. AT IT FASTEST, I THINK THAT NUMBER WAS IN THE NEIGHBORHOOD OF 30 KILOMETERS A SECOND. SO. [ SNAP ] [ SNAP ] YOU'VE GONE ALL THE WAY ACROSS. THAT'S PRETTY FAST. THE GIANT CAN OPENER IS A MAGNETOMETER BOOM. THEY ARE BUILT BY THE SAME TEAM DOING THE SAME JOB BUT IT'S NOT JUST REDUNDANT. SOMEBODY I'M SURE WILL THINK OF THIS, WHY DO I WANT MY MAGNETOMETER REALLY FAR FROM THE SPACECRAFT. RIGHT, I HEARD AT LEAST ONE PERSON SAY IT. I WANT TO MEASURE THE MAGNETIC FIELD OF JUPITER, NOT OF THE JUNO SPACECRAFT. SO I WANT THE MAGNETOMETER AS FAR FROM THE SPACECRAFT AS I CAN GET AND THE SPACECRAFT AS MAGNETICALLY CLEAN AS WE CAN GET AND IT'S REALLY CLEAN. THE MAGNETOMETER TEAM WORKED REALLY WELL WITH THE SPACECRAFT TEAM TO HELP THEM MEASURE THE MAGNETIC FIELD OF PARTS AS THEY WERE COMING ON TO THE SPACECRAFT AND FIGURE OUT WAYS TO MAKE THE SPACECRAFT MAGNETICALLY CLEAN SO YOU HAVE A CURRENT GOING THIS WAY, YOU HAVE ANOTHER GOING THE OPPOSITE TO CANCEL OUT ITS MAGNETIC FIELD, NOT USING MAGNETIC PARTS, ALL OF THAT STUFF. THE SPACECRAFT HAS A LOW MAGNETIC FIELD AND THE MAGNETOMETER IS FAR AWAY FROM IT AND THAT TELLLES YOU WHY WE WANT TWO, ONE CLOSER TO THE SPACECRAFT THAN THE OTHER. AS THE SPACECRAFT SPINS AROUND AND WE MEASURE JUPITER'S MAGNETIC FIELD, IF THERE'S A DIFFERENT BETWEEN THE TWO, WE CAN TELL THAT THERE'S A MAGNETIC FIELD FROM THE SPACECRAFT AS OPPOSED TO FROM JUPITER SO WE CAN SUBTRACT THAT OUT AND GET THE MAGNETIC FIELD OF JUPITER. IT CAME OUT REALLY MAGNETICL CLEAN, SO IT WORKED WELL. >> THANKS FOR HAVING ME. I HAVE TWO QUESTIONS. THE FIRST QUESTION IS ABOUT THE WEATHER, AND THE CIRCULATION OF GASES IN THE ATMOSPHERE, AND THE MAGNETIC FIELD, AND I'M JUST WONDERING IF YOU CAN ELABORATE A LITTLE BIT MORE ON THAT, AND ALSO, IS THERE -- YOU TALKED ABOUT HOW THE MOVEMENT OF GASES OR FLUIDS IN THE QUOTE ATMOSPHERE OF JUPITER MIGHT BE GENERATEING MAGNETIC FEEDS AND I'M CURIOUS ABOUT THE POSSIBILITY OF THE OPPOSITE EFFECT. THEN MY NEXT QUESTION IS ABOUT THE METALLIC HYDROGEN THAT YOU'RE DISCUSSING, AND THE DISCUSSION ALWAYS SEEMS TO BE AS IF THE METALLIC HYDROGEN IS PURE. I WONDER WHAT SPECULATION HAS BEEN DONE ABOUT ALLOYS IN WHICH OTHER ELEMENTS OR NON WHATEVER ELEMENTS ARE MIXED IN WITH THAT AND WHAT EFFECT THAT HAS ON YOUR CALCULATIONS. >> ALL RIGHT. THAT'S GOING TO BE A LOT TO TALK ABOUT. LET'S SEE WHAT WE CAN DO. LET ME TAKE IT IN REVERSE ORDER, BECAUSE I REMEMBER THE LAST QUESTION BEST. REMEMBER THAT JUPITER'S COMPOSITION, WHILE NOT EXACTLY THE SAME ASHE SUN, IS SIMILAR AND WE KNOW WHAT THE COMPOSITION OF THE SUN AND THE WHOLE SOLAR SYSTEM IS, IT FORMED FROM THE SAME CLOUD OF MATERIAL PRESUMABLY AND THAT'S MOSTLY HYDROGEN AND HELIUM. BY THE TIME YOU GET DOWN TO EVEN OXYGEN, IT'S A FEW PERCENT OR SOMETHING, RIGHT? WHEN YOU GET DOWN TO SOMETHING THAT MIGHT CONDUCT ELECTRICITY OR MIX IN WITH THE METALLIC HYDROGEN, IT'S A VERY LOW PERCENTAGE OF THE MATERIAL, SO IF, AND THERE PROBABLE ARE, IF THERE ARE CONTAMINANTS IN THE LIQUID METALLIC HYDROGEN OCEAN, THOSE CONTAMINANTS PROBABLY DON'T PLAY A BIG ROLE BECAUSE IT'S SUCH A LOW PERCENTAGE OF THE TOTAL MATERIAL. NOW, YOU DO HAVE TO BE CAUTIOUS ABOUT THAT. IF I SAID, YOU KNOW, I MADE, I TOOK IRON AND I PUT A LITTLE BIT OF CARBON TRACE ELEMENTS IN IT, IT SHOULDN'T MATTER MUCH, I CAN MAKE STEEL BUT THAT'S A SOLID WITH A CRIST LYNN STRUCTURE, DIFFERENT FROM A LIQUID AND EVEN THERE I THINK THE PERCENTAGE OF CARBON IS PROBABLY HIGHER THAN THE PERCENTAGE OF TRACE ELEMENTS IN THE METALLIC HYDROGEN, SO I'M NOT GOING TO TRY TO GO BEYOND THAT, BECAUSE I DON'T KNOW THE ANSWERS. I'M SURE SOMEBODY SOMEWHERE HAS DONE THAT CALCULATION ABOUT HOW MUCH WE HAVE TO PAY ATTENTION TO THE IMPURITIES. PICTURE THIS LIQUID METALLIC HYDROGEN UNDER VERY HIGH PRESSURE SWIRLING AROUND BECAUSE THERE'S HEAT COMING OUT OF THE PLANET AND THE PLANET'S ROTATING RAPIDLY. THE HEAT WANTS TO MAKE THINGS RISE, CARRY THE HEAT OUT, YOU MOVE MATERIAL AROUND, SPIN THE PLANET AROUND, RAPIDLY, IT DOESN'T MOVE IN A NICE, SMOOTH, EASY PATTERN, YOU GET SHEER, YOU HAVE SFF STIRRED UP. THAT'S GENERATING A MAGNETIC FIELD. THAT'S GOT TO BE THE BULK OF THE MAGNETIC FIELD FROM JUPITER. OUR MEASUREMENTS SHOW THAT THE MAGNETIC FIELD IS MORE COMPLICATED THAN WE THOUGHT IT SHOULD BE BASED ON THAT, SO ONE POSSIBLE ANSWER, AND THIS IS BY NO MEANS SURE IS THAT HIGHER UP, JUST ABOVE THAT METALLIC HYDROGEN LAYER, WHERE THE HYDROGEN'S COMPRESSED BUT NOT ENOUGH TO MAKE LIQUID METALLIC HYDROGEN THAT MAYBE THAT CONDUCTS ELECTRICITY A LITTLE BIT AND WE KNOW THAT IF YOU SQUEEZE HYDROGEN GAS ENOUGH, YOU CAN PRESSURE IONIZE IT. YOU CAN HAVE THOSE HYDROGEN AT TOMS SMASHING INTO EACH OTHER SO MUCH BECAUSE OF THEIGH PRESSURE THAT EVERY ONCE IN A WHILE, AN ELECTRON GETS STRIPPED OFF, SO YOU HAVE A LITTLE BIT OF CONDUCTIVITY. SOME OF THEM ARE IONS INSTEAD OF AT TOMS. IF YOU DO SOMETHING LIKE THAT, CONDUCT ELECTRICITY THERE AND IT'S MOVING ALL AROUND, THAT COULD AFFECT THE MAGNETIC FIELD. THE WAY A DINO WORKS, YES, THE MAGNETIC FIELD IS DEFINITELY INTERACTING WITH THE MOTION OF THE LIQUID, SO IT'S NOT YOU MAKE THE LIQUID MOVE AROUND AND PRODUCE A MAGNETIC FIELD AND VOILÀ, YOU GET A FIELD -- YOU GET THIS PROCESS THAT IS MUCH MORE COMPLICATED BUT IN WHICH ACTUALLY THE MOTION OF THE LIQUID CAN GENERATE A MAGNETIC FIELD THAT CAUSES IT TO MOVE IN THAT WAY SOME MORE AND MAKES A STRONGER MAGNETIC FIELD. THAT'S HOW YOU A DINO WORKS, WE THINK, SO IT'S NOT SIMPLE BUT YEAH, THERE'S DEFINITELY AN INTERACTION BETWEEN THE MOTION OF THE FIELD AND THE MAGNETIC FIELD THAT IT GENERATES. NOW ON TOP OF THAT, IF I LOOK AT THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE, IF YOU REMEMBER THAT PICTURE WITH THE BELTS AND ZONES, THE MOVIE, THIS ONE. IS THAT PLAYING? IF YOU REMEMBER THAT, WE HAVE THIS SPECULATION AND IT'S ONLY SPECULATION AT THIS POINT, THAT THE FACT THAT THOSE BELTS AND ZONES ARE 3,000 KILOMETERS DEEP MIGHT HAVE SOMETHING TO DO WITH GETTING DEEP ENOUGH TO WHERE THE PRESSURE MAKES A LITTLE BIT OF CONDUCTIVITY AND PERHAPS BELOW THAT WHERE THE GAS CONDUCTS ELECTRICITY A LITTLE BETTER, MAYBE THE MAGNETIC FIELD HOLDS IT AND STOPS THE BELTS AND ZONES FROM GOING ANY DEEPER. SPECULATION AT THIS POINT, THE MAIN THING IS WE CAN TELL FROM THE MEASUREMENT ABOUT HOW DEEP THEY GO AND WE CAN TELL FROM THE MEASUREMENT THAT BELOW THAT, THE PLANET ROTATES AS A SOLID BODY AND THAT ANYBODY WHO THINKS ABOUT PLANETS CAN TRY TO FIGURE OUT WHY IT DOES THAT AND OF COURSE WE HAVE LOTS OF PEOPLE WORKING HARD ON THAT EVEN AS WE SPEAK, THEY'RE PROBABLY AT HOME, YOU KNOW, THINKING ABOUT THINGS AND WORKING ON THEIR COMPUTER MODELS. OK. DID THAT COVER WHAT YOU WERE ASKING? >> THANK YOU VERY MUCH. I OBVIOUSLY HAVE OTHER QUESTIONS, BUT I THINK THAT'S ENOUGH. >> YOU'RE WELCOME TO GO TO THE END OF THE LINE AND COME BACK AND ASK AUESTION. I JUST WANT TO KNOW WHAT WOULD YOU SAY WOULD BE A DIFFERENCE FROM THE HOT JUPITER, THE NEW JUPITER WITH THOSE OLD INFORMATION BE DIFFERENT? >>'M SORRY. SAY THE BEGINNING PART AGAIN, THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN? >> HOT JUPITERS. >> OH, YOU MEAN LIKE AROUND OTHER STARS AND OUR JUPITER? >> FROM THE INFORMATION YOU ARE DISCOVERING. >> RIGHT. SO IT'S A TRICKIER QUESTION THAN IT SOUNDS, AND THAT'S BECAUSE IN MANY WAYS, A WHAT WE KNOW ABOUT THE PLAN NECESSARY AROUND OTHER STARS IS MUCH MORE LIMITED, BUT OF COURSE, WE HAVE LOTS O THEM INSTEAD OF JUST THE ONLY ONE EXAMPLE WE HAVE HERE. I KNOW A LOT OF PEOPLE, THERE'S A BUS THAT THEY'RE TRYING TO CATCH IS WHY WE HAVE A BUNCH OF PEOPLE LEAVING AT THE MOMENT, SO WE DON'T REALLY HAVE THAT COMPARISON YET. OUR GUESS WOULD BE THAT THE ONE PLANET, GIANT PLANET THAT WE HAVE, JUPITER, IS PRESUMABLY SORT OF TYPICAL FOR WHAT PLANETS THAT SIZE LOOK LIKE, BUT WE ONLY HAVE THE ONE. WE DON'T HAVE 50 OF THEM TO LOOK AT, AND IF YOU LOOK AT THE PLANETS AROUND OTHER STARS THAT WE DISCOVERED, THERE'S ALL THESE BIASES ABOUT HOW YOU DISCOVER THEM MAKES IT EASIER TO DISCOVER BIG ONES CLOSE TO THE STAR AND AND SO FOR. UNTIL PEOPLE STARTED FINDING EXO PLANETS, NO ONE EXPECTED TO FIND GIANT PLANETS NEXT TO A STAR. THE MODEL OF HOW THE SOLAR SYSTEM FORCE STILL HAS A LOT OF WORKING TO ON IT TO UNDERSTAND. WEHINK IT HAS SOMETHING TO DO WITH PLANETS FORMING FARTHER FROM THE STAR AND DRIFTING INWARD AS THEY GOBBLE UP THE MATERIAL THAT MAKES UP THE EARLY SOLAR SYSTEM. IN FACT, WE THINK PERHAPS THAT JUPITER FORMED FURTHER FROM THE SUN, DRIFTED INWARD, GOBBLING UP STUFF ON THE WAY AND IN THE PROCESS DISTURBED THE ORBITS ARE WHAT NOW ARE NEPTUNE AND SATURN AND KICKED THEM OUT INTO THE OUTER SOLAR SYSTEM AND MAYBE EVEN STIRRED UP THE THINGS THAT EVENTUALLY BECAME THE EARTH AND MARS AND ALL THE SMALL PLAN NECESSARY. WHELAN MORE AS WE FINALLY GET THE WATER CONTENT, WHICH IS GOING TO COME AS WE UNDERSTAND THE ATMOSPHERE BETTER. THAT WILL TELL US A LOT ABOUT WHETHER JUPITER MOVED OR FORMED WHERE IT IS NOW. >> THEN ALSO AS A, THE JADE, I THINK THAT'S WHAT YOU WERE REFERRING TO, THE MIDDLE PART OF WHERE IT WAS MEASURING, I THINK THAT'S WHAT IT'S CALLED, THE JOVIAN. >> WE HAVE TWO INSTRUMENTS ON THE SPACECRAFT THAT MEASURE THE PARTICLES THAT ARE HITTING THE SPACECRAFT. THERE'S THE JADE, WHICH IS JOVIAN AURORAAL DISTRIBUTION OR SOMETHING LIKE THAT. THEN THERE'S JEDI, WHICH I WON'T TRY TO REMEMBER THE ACRONYM. YOU'RE RIGHT, IT WAS ON ONE OF MY VERY FIRST SLIDES. THERE YOU GO. JEDI IS THE HIGHER ENERGY PARTICLES. IT'S HARD TO GET THROUGH ALL OF THESE SLIDES BACKWARDS. THERE WE GO. OK. GOOD, SO JEDI IS JUPITER ENERGETIC PARTICLE DETECTOR OF IONS, IT MUST BE IONS, BECAUSE THAT'S THE I. WE HAVE TO MEASURE A FULL RANGE OF ENERGETIC PARTICLES AND THEN THEY WORK TOGETHER, RIGHT, BECAUSE THE PARTICLES DON'T KNOW WHETHER THEY'RE ENERGETIC OR NOT IN TERMS OF DISTRIBUTIONS. IT'S NOT LIKE THEY COME IN NICE LITTLE BINS. YOU MEASURE THAT, YOU MEASURE THE PLASMA WAVES THAT ARE GOING THROUGH SO YOU SEE MAGNETIC AND ELECTRIC FEEDS, YOU MEASURE THE LIGHT, THAT'S THE ULTRAVIOLET AND INFRARED CAMERAS. YOU MEASURE THE RADIO WAVES. WE MEASURE THE MAGNETIC FIELD THAT OANIZES ALL OF IT, PUT THAT ALTOGETHER IN A BIG PICTURE AND THAT'S HOW WE UNDERSTAND THE MAG NIETO SEVERE. IT'S ALL OF THOSE INSTRUMENTS WORKING TOGETHER AT A TEAM TO REALLY UNDERSTAND THE PICTURE. >> WELL, THAT'S AWESOME. THANK YOU. >> THANK YOU. >> ALL RIGHT, I HAVE A VERY QUICK QUESTION REGARDING THE CYCLONES. WE PREVIOUSLY WENT OVER THAT THEY'RE MOVING THE SAME DIRECTION. HOWEVER, I WAS WONDERING IF THE CYCLONE GROOVES, THE NORTH POLE ARE MOVING THE SAME DIRECTIONS ALLEGES THOSE ON THE SOUTH POLE, AND IF SO, WHAT IS THE POPULAR, THE POST POPULAR THEORIES THAT WE HAVE COME UP WITH OR EVEN IF IT'S SPECULATION, THAT WOULD BE GOOD, TOO. >> LET'S LOOK AT THE PICTURES AND WE CAN ANSWER THAT QUESTION. HERE'S THE SOUTH POLE. I'M LOOKING AT IT FROM THE SOUTH AND YOU CAN SEE THE SPIRAL GOES AROUND THAT WAY. RIGHT? >> YES. >> HERE'S THE NORTH POLE. I'M LOOKING AT IT FROM THE NORTH AND YOU CAN SEE THE SPIRAL GOES AROUND THE OTHER WAY. OK? SO WHETHER THAT'S THE SAME DIRECTION OR OPPOSITE DIRECTION DEPENDS ON YOU KNOW THE VIEWPOINT, RIGHT, BUT YOU CAN SEE WHICH DIRECTIONS THEY'RE SPINNING THAT WAY, AND THEN SINCE ALL OF THESE ARE DOING THE SAME THING, THEN THAT'S WHY IT'S A PROBLEM IF THEY'RE ALL SPINNING THE SAME DIRECTION AND RUBBING ON EACH OTHER. SOMEHOW, THEY HAVE TO, YOU KNOW, SOMETHING HAS TO SUPPLY ENERGY TO KEEP THEM RUBBING ON EACH OTHER OR SOMETHING HAS TO GIVE THEM A WAY TO SPIN NEXT TO EACH OTHER AND NOT DESTROY EACH OTHER. IF YOU TAKE A ROTATING PLANET AND PUT A CYCLONE ON IT AND SAY WHAT DOES IT DO, WHAT YOU WOULD EXPECT ACTUALLY IS THE CYCLONE WILL DRIFT UP TOWARDS THE NORTH POLE OR IN THE SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE DRIFT DOWN TOWARDS THE SOUTH POLE, BECAUSE IF YOU IMAGINE, YOU KNOW, YOU'RE ON JUPITER A LITTLE NORTH OF THE EQUATOR AND YOU'RE SPINNING AROUND, WELL, THE WHOLE PLANET'S ROTATING, THE PART THAT'S CLOSER TO THE EQUATOR HAS FURTHER TO GO ALL THE WAY AROUND THE PLANET THAN THE PART NORTH OF THE EQUATOR. IF I COME AROUND IN MY CYCLONE AND I'M GOING NORTH, THEN I'M SHIFTING SPEEDS. IF I COME AROUND THE OTHER WAY, THEN I'M SHIFTING SPEEDS DOWNWARD. SO IF YOU WORK OUT ALL THE ADD UP ALL THE SPEEDS AND SAY WHAT DOES THE AIR DO, YOU WIND UP WITH A LITTLE BIT MORE SPEED HEADING NORTH THAN HEADING SOUTH, IF YOUR CYCLONE IS SPINNING THE RIGHT DIRECTION TO BE A CYCLONE. YOU EXPECT THE CYCLONES TO DRIFT UP TO THE NORTH. THAT DOESN'T EXPLAIN ANYTHING. YOU HAVE TO SAY WHERE DID THE CYCLONES COME IN THE FIRST PLACE AND WHY DO THEY LAST ENOUGH TO SPIN UP TO THE NORTH AND WHY DO THEY LOFT ENOUGH WHEN THEY ARE BUTTED UP AGAINST EACH OTHER FOR US TO SEE THEM FOR TWO YEARS AND NOT MUCH CHANGE BUT A PIECE OF THAT PUZZLE IS EXPLAINED IF I MAKE A CYCLONE, THERE IS NO GROUND FOR IT TO RUN INTO, IT'S GOING TO GO GRADUALLY PILE UP AT THE NORTH POLE. >> HAS ANYBODY MADE ANY PRTION WHEN EXACTLY THAT IT STARTED AND WILL IT EVER STOP OR IS IT GOING TO CONSTANTLY KEEP GOING OR NOBODY HAS MADE ANY PREDICTIONS OR STUDIES YET? >> WELL, IT'S PRETTY NEW. WE HAVE BEEN THERE FOR LESS THAN TWO YEARS AND THIS WAS A BIG SURPRISE TO EVERYBODY IN THE FIRST PLACE, BUT ONE OF THE THINGS WE'RE DOING IS WATCHING THESE CYCLONES CAREFULLY TO TRY TO SEE HOW THEY CHANGE. YOU KEEP COMING BACK AND YOU LOOK AT THOSE FIVE CYCLONES AROUND THE SOUTH POLE AND THEY'RE ALWAYS THERE EVERYASS, BUT IF YOU TAKE A REALLY GOOD LOOK AT THE IMAGES AND COMPARE, THEY ARE SHIFTING A LITTLE BIT. THEY ARE NOT JUST ROTATING IN PLACE, THEY'RE MOVING A LITTLE BIT, SO WE'RE STARTING TO TRACK THEM AND USE THAT TO UNDERSTAND HOW LONG DO THEY LAST AND WHAT DO THEY DO AND HOW DO THEY MOVE AND ALL THAT STUFF. >> DO YOU HAVE YOU A SPECIFIC WEBSITE THAT'S DEDICATED TO THIS THAT I CAN SORT OF FOLLOW TO SEE THE TRACKING AND THOSE DATAS? >> I DON'T THINK SO. I THINK YOU'RE BEST BET FOR THAT IS TO KEEP AN EYE ON NASA'S WEBSITE FOR JUNO, IF YOU LOOK AT NASA.GOV/JUNO OR THE PUBLIC FRIENDLY JUNO, THAT HAS ALL THE JUNO STUFF. I'M FLIPPING THROUGH TO GIVE YOU THE WEBSITES BECAUSE TELLING YOU THE NAME IS NOT GOING TO BE EASY TO REMEMBER BUT YOU CAN WRITE IT DOWN OR FIND IT ON LINE. PROBABLY THE PLACE TO DO IS FOLLOW THERE AND WE'LL PUBLISH THINGS IN THE SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE, BUT THAT'S GOING TO BE A WHILE. GOOD QUESTION, THOUGH, WE SHOULD THINK ABOUT WHETHER THERE'S A WAY TO, YOU KNOW, TAKE THE DIFFERENT SCIENTIFIC QUESTIONS AND PUT THEM OUT THERE AND LET PEOPLE FOLLOW THE STORY A LITTLE BEST. >> THAT WOULD BE GREAT IF EVERYBODY CAN TAKE VOTES ON LIKE WHICH SORT OF DATA THEY WANT TO FOLLOW AND YOU CAN OPEN UP LIKE A TAB ON THE WEBSITE JUST DEDICATED TO THOSE DATA AND CONSTANTLY UPDATING THEM EVERY MONTH. THAT WOULD BE AWESOME. >> I LIKE THE IDEA, BUT I'M ALSO PICTURING THE PEOPLE WHO WOULD HAVE TO DO THAT SAYING WE DON'T HAVE ANYWHERE NEAR THE PEOPLE TO DO THAT. >> ALL RIGHT, THANK YOU SO MUCH. >> HI. I HAVE TWO QUESTIONS. THE FIRST IS DO YOU THINK THAT THE AFTER THERE ARE EIGHT SAME CLONES AT THE NORTH POLE AND FIVE AT THE SOUTH POLE, DOES THAT HAVE ANYTHING TO DO WITH THE FACT THAT THE MAGNETIC& FIELDS SEEM TO BE MORE TURBULENT IN THE NORTH? MY SECOND QUESTION, IT SEEMS MOST OF THE SCIENCE IS COMING FROM THE FLY BY PERIOD OF JUNO. ARE WE SELECTING DATA FROM THE REST OF ITS ORBIT? >> RIGHT, OK, SO ABOUT THE CYCLONES AND THE MAGNETIC FIELD, YEAH, IT'S STRIKING THAT THE PLANET IS ASYMMETRIC IN ITS MAGNETIC FIELD AND IN ITS ATMOSPHERE AT SEEN AT THE TOP, AND ITS GRAVITY SIGNATURE, BUT IT'S HARD TO PICTURE HOW THE MAGNETIC FIELD COULD BE INFLUENCING THOSE CYCLONES, BECAUSE UP AT THE TOP OF THE ATMOSPHERE, AT PRESSURE'S SIMILAR TO THE PRESSURE HERE IN THIS ROOM, THE GAS DOESN'T CONDUCT ELECTRICITY VERY WELL, SO IT SHOULDN'T BE AFFECTED BY THE MAGNETIC FIELD MUCH, AND IT'S GOT HUGE AMOUNTS OF MASS MOVING AT PRETTY G VELOCITIES. THESE ARE CYCLONES, RIGHT? THINK OF, YOU KNOW, THE POWER IN A HURRICANE HERE ON THE EARTH AND NOW YOU'RTALKING ABOUT STORMS THAT ARE BIGGER THAN THE BIGGEST HURRICANE YOU'VE EVER IMAGINED. NOBODY HAS YET COME UP WITH A MECHANISM THAT EXPLAINS THAT IT CONNECTS THE NORTHERN, THE ASYMMETRY IN THE MAGNETIC FIELD WITH THE ASYMMETRY IN THE WEATHER. I'M NOT SAYING IT'S I NOT AN ARGUMENT WHERE THE MATH WORKS OUT AT ALL. WE CALL THE PART WHEN WE GET NEAR JUPITER PARAJOVE. THE MOST SCIENTIFIC DATA IS FROM WITHIN A FEW HOURS OF OUR CLOSEST APPROACH. WE DON'T TURN THE INSTRUMENTS OF A OR 53 DAYS FAR FROM JUPITER. IN PARTICULAR, A LOT OF THE FIELDS AND PARTICLES INSTRUMENTS, YOU KNOW GET TO MEASURE A LOT OF INTERESTING STUFF ABOUT THE INNING NIETO SEVERE. OUR ORBIT IS BIG ENOUGH THAT WE HAVE CROSSED LOTS OF INTERESTING REGIONS QUITE FAR FROM JUPITER AND WE DO THOSE MEASUREMENTS. IT'S NOT THE PRIME SCIENCE WE WENT THERE FOR BUT IT'S LOTS OF GOOD STUFFND WE'RE COLLECTING LOTS OF DATA. THE MICROWAVE RAID I DON'T MEAN AT HER THAT DOES THOSE ATMOSPHERIC MEASUREMENTS, THE DATA WAY UP AGAINST JUPITER ARE WAY MORE VALUABLE FROM THE REST OF THE DATA BUT IT DOESN'T USE UP A LOT OF BAND WIDTH TO SEND THAT TO THE GROUND. WE GET TO LEARN ABOUT THE BETS AND MICROWAVE RAID I DON'T MEAN TERSE DON'T LIKE TO BE TURNED OFF AND OFF. WE LET IT RUN AND COLLECT THE DATA AND ALL WE DO IS THROTTLE BACK THE DATA RATE A LITTLE BIT WHEN IT'S AWAY FROM THE PLANET SO WE WON'T BE WASTING THE COMMUNICATION WITH THE GROUND, BECAUSE YOU CAN ONLY SEND SO MUCH DATA AT A TIME. WE JUST LEAVE IT ON. IT'S ONE SEVENTH OF THE DATA RATE THE WHOLE TIME BECAUSE IT'S >> THANKS.EVER TURN IT OFF.- >> SURE. >> HI, I HAD A QUESTION ABOUT THE CONSISTENCY OF T MAGNETIC FIELD MEASUREMENTS OVER MULTIPLE YEARS, GIVEN THAT IT'S BEING GENERATED BY A FLUID, IT WOULD SEEM REASONABLE THAT MAYBE OVER THE COURSE OF MULTIPLE YEARS THAT WOULD SHIFT AND SO THE MAP IS ACTUALLY CHANGING AND NOT LIKE A CONSISTENT MAP. >> RIGHT, SO WE ARE LOOKING FOR RIATION IN THE MAGNETIC FIELD OVER TIME, BUT YOU HAVE TOMORROW, SIGNIFICANCE IS SO BIG THAT IT'S REALLY HARD FOR US TO PICTURE THE TIME SCALES INVOLVED, SO WE'RE GOING TO BE AT JUPITER, IF EVERYTHING GOES WELL AND MANUAL THE SPACECRAFT LASTS FOR A REALLY LONG TIME AND WE END UP DOING AN EXTENDED MISSION AND ALL OF THAT STUFF, SUPPOSE EVERYTHING GOES PERFECTLY AND NASA SAYS DO WHATEVER YOU WANT, WE'LL GIVE YOU LOTS OF MONEY AND ALL OF THAT, MAYBE THE SPACECRAFT WOULD BE AROUND FOR ANOTHER I DON'T KNOW, I'M TOTALLY MAKING IT UP, BUT SAY 10 MORE YEARS. RIGHT? IT'S NOT GOING TO BE BEYOND THAT, BECAUSE THE RADIATION SOONER OR LATER IS GOING TO KILL IT. JUPITER'S BEEN AROUND FOR FOUR AND A HALF BILLION YEARS. IT HASN'T EVEN FINISHED COOLING OFF YET. THE MOTIONS IN THE INTERIOR, SUPPOSE THAT THAT DYNAMO IS LIKE SHIFTING LIKE CRAZY ON A FLASH OF A TIME SCALE ON JUPITER'S TIME SCALE. THAT MIGHT STILL BE 500 YEARS. YES, WE ARE LOOKING FOR VARIATION IN THE MAGNETIC FIELD WITH THAT WE HOPE AS WE GET THROUGH OUR 32 ORBITS AND EXTEND THE MISSION OR GO BEYOND THAT, THAT WE'LL BE ABLE TO TELL WHETHER THE MAGNETIC FIELD IS VARYING, BUT GIVEN THAT OF COURSE JUPITER HAS SURPRISED US A BUNCH, DON'T EXPECT IT TO BE VARYING ON TIME SCALES OF A YEAR OR TWO. WE EXPECT TO BE ABLE TO MEASURE SMALL VARIATION OF THE MAGNETIC FIELD AND SAY YEAH, I THINK IF YOU WAITED A THOUSAND YEARS, IT WOULD DO THIS. >> PERHAPS THIS HASN'T BEEN DETERMINED YET BECAUSE YOU'VE GOT TO FINISH THE MISSION AND POSSIBLE EXTENDED MISSION AS YOU JUST ALLUDED TO, BUT AT SOME POINT, DO YOU ANTICIPATE THAT JUNOS GOING TO MEET THE SAME FATAL AT CASSINI? >> YES, SO RIGHT NOW, WE'RE ON A PLAN WHERE WE DO 32 ORBITS, 32 SCIENCE ORBITS, SO IT'S A FEW MORE, A SPARE OR TWO TO MAKE SHEER WE DO THE MAGNETIC MATH AND AT THE END OF THAT, WE FIRE THE THRUSTERS SO THAT IT DIVES& INTO JUPITER'S ATMOSPHERE AND BURNS UP. THAT'S THE PLAN. WE'RE NOT ASKING FOR AN EXTENDED MISSION YET. THAT'S GOING TO BE 2021 BY THE TIME THAT HAPPENS, BUT PRESUMABLY, IF EVERYTHING WORKS W NASA THAT WE CAN PROTECT EUROPA WITHOUT DESTROYING THE SPACECRAFT RIGHT AWAY, WE WOULD FIGURE SOMETHING OUT AND SEE IF THEY'RE WILLING TO LET US OPERATE IT LONGER. WE'RE IN THE PRIME MISSION. WE'RE NOT READY TO WORK ON THAT, AND WE HAVE A REQUIREMENT TO MAKE SURE THAT WE DON'T CONTAMINATE EUROPA. THE SIMPLEST AND MOST STRAIGHTFORWARD WAY IS TO VAPORIZE THE SPACECRAFT IN JUPITER. YOU CAN COME UP WITH MORE COMPLICATED THINGS AND I'M SURE, YOU KNOW, NOBODY'S GOING TO WANT TO DESTROY THE SPACECRAFT WITHOUT NEEDING TO. WHEN THE TIME COMES IF SOMEBODY COMES UP WITH A CLEVER PLAN, WE'LL ARGUE EUROPA'S SAFE ENOUGH, LET US DO SO MANY ORBITS. BUT RIGHT NOW, WE HAVE A PLAN AND IT'S ORBIT 36 IF I REMEMBER CORRECTLY, SO AFTER 32 SIGNS ORBITS, PLUS A COUPLE OF SPARES, PLUS THE ONE OR TWO AT THE BEGINNING THAT WEREN'T SCIENCE ORBITS, WE'LL FIRE THE THRUSTERS AND DEORBIT AND BURN IT UP IN JUPITER, WHICH IS ESSENTIALLY WHAT CASSINI DID AND CASSINI DID EXTENDED, EXTENDED, EXTENDED MISSIONS UNTIL THEY FINALLY HAD TO GIVE UP AND SAY OK, WE'RE GOING TO RUN OUT OF FUEL AND WE HAVE TO PROTECT ENSELL DIS. SO THE THRUSTERS JUST GAS. WE HAD HYDROZENE AND OXIDIZER TO FIRE THE MAIN ENGINE. THE THRUSTERS THAT CONTROL THE ALTITUDE AND SHAPE THE ORBIT NOW JUST BLOW A LITTLE GAS OUT FROM THE FACT THAT THE TANKS ARE PRESSURIZED. THAT'S THE LIMITING FACT OR FOR FUEL, LIMITING FACTOR FOR LIFETIME MIGHT TURN OUT TO BE RADIATION DAMAGE. WE HAVEN'T SEEN ANY SIGNIFICANT RADIATION DAMAGE YET BUT THERE'S A LONG MISSION TO GO, BUT THAT'S THE KIND OF THING THAT LIMITS THE TECHNICAL LIFETIME. THEN OF COURSE, YOU KNOW, WE'RE AT THE DISCRETN OF CONGRESS AND NASA TO DECIDE WHETHER THEY WANT TO KEEP PAYING TO MAKE THIS HAPPEN. IF WE GOT TO THE POINT WE WEREN'T GETTING GREAT SCIENCE, THEN THAT COULD ALSO BE A LIMITING FACTOR. >> LOOKING IN THE TWO SPACE CRAFTS, LAUNCHED IN 1977, JUNO ABOUT THREEECADES OR MORE LATER, AND WITH THE LIMITED CAPABILITY ESPECIALLY WITH THE COMPUTER WE HAD, NOW JUNO IS MUCH MORE. IT FLEW BY AND WE LEARNED A LOT ABOUT JUPITER FROM THEM. CAN YOU BRIEFLY TELL ME IN THOSE THREE DECADES WHAT WE LEARNED. WE HAD ALSO GALILEO IN BETWEEN. I' SURE THAT WE LEARNED A LOT, OF COURSE, AND THEY ARE INTERESTING THINGS, BUT I SEE THE TWO SPACECRAFTS NEXT TO EH OTHER. >> I DO WANT TO POINT OUT THAT, YOU KNOW, THAT'S A FULL SCALE MODEL AND THAT'S A ONE FIFTH SCALE MODEL, BUT THE WAY I WOULD THINK OF IT IS BIG PICTURE, WE EXPLORE OUR SOLAR SYSTEM FIRST WITH LET'S JUST GET TO THE PLANET AND SEE WHAT WE CAN LEARN AND YOU LEARN A LOT FROM THE VERY FIRST FLY BY. VOYAGER WAS ABOUT T GETTING FROM ONE PLANET TO THE NEXT AND LEARNING AN ENORMOUS AMOUNT OF STUFF BECAUSE NO ONE HAD EVER BEEN THERE BEFORE AND EVERYTHING WAS BRAND NEW. GALILEO WAS NOW WE'VE LEARNED SOMETHING ABOUT JUPITER. WE KNOW WHAT QUESTIONS TO ASK. WE KNOW WHAT SPACECRAFT HAS TO BE ABLE TO DO TO SURVIVE, LET'S GO PUT SOMETHING IN ORBIT AND STUDY THE JOVIAN SYSTEM, THE WHOLE SYSTEM, THE MOONS OF JUPITER AS WELL AS JUPITER ITSELF, LEARN ABOUT THE MAGNETIC FIELD AND MAG NIETO TIER AND ALL OF THAT. ONE OF THE THINGS WE LEARNED, KEY THINGS WE LEARNED FROM THE GALILEO PROBE WAS THAT 20 BARS, GOING DOWN ON THE PRESSURE HERE AT EARTH WASN'T ENOUGH TO GET TO WHERE THE WATER WAS WELL MIXED. PEOPLE THOUGHT THEY WERE GOING TO MEASURE THE WATER CONTENT, THE GLOBAL WATER CONTENT OF JUPITER WITH THE GALILEO PROBE AND WE FOUND WHEN WE MEASURED THE WATER, THE PROBE DID EVERYTHING IT WAS SUPPOSED TO DO, BUT JUPITER WAS MORE COMPLICATED THAN THAT. IT FND BIG SURPRISES. IT FOUND THE COMPOSITION OF JUPITER HAD THESE HEAVIER ELEMENTS BESIDES HYDROGEN AND HELIUM THREE OR FOUR TIMES WHAT THEY WERE EXPECTED TO BE. IT SORT OF MATCH UNDERSTAND THE PROPORTIONS IN THE SUN. IF YOU TOOK AN ELEMENT, HOW MUCH OF CARBON THERE WAS, DIVIDE BY HOW MUCH HYDROGEN THERE WAS, COMPARE THAT WITH THE RATIO IN THE SUN, EVERYTHING WAS OFF BY A FACTOR OF THREE OR FOUR. IT WAS MORE THE HEAVIER STUFF, EXCEPT WATER WHERE IT FOUND HARDLY ANY WATER. THAT WAS THE BIG MYSTERY, ONE OF THE KEY REASONS WE SENT JUNO THERE WAS TO RESPOND TO THAT MYSTERY, MEASURE WATER AND DO A MORE SPECIFIC MEASUREMENT. JUNO DOESN'T TRY TO STUDY THE WHOLE SYSTEM. IT DOESN'T TRY TO STUDY MULTIPLE PLAN NECESSARY. IT TRIES TO STUDY JUPITER AND SPECIFIC ASPECTS OF JUPITER THAT WE NOW KNOW TO ASK QUESTIONS ABOUT AND GET INTO MUCH GREATER DETAIL. YOU GO FROM A FLY BY THAT'S GOING TO TRY TO STUDY MULTIPLE PLANETS AND LEARN THE BIG BROAD BRUSH STUFF THAT NODY KNEW YET AND DO RAW EXPLORATION TO AN ORBITER THAT'S GOING TO STAY IN THE EQUATE FORUAL PLANE AND LEARN ALL KINDS OF WIDE VARIETY OF DIFFERENT THINGS ABOUT JUPITER TO A SPACECRAFT LIKE JUNO FOCUSED ON PARTICULAR QUESTIONS AND STUDY PARTICULAR THINGS ABOUT JUPITER THAT HAD NEVER BEEN STUDIED BEFORE. I HOPE THERE WILL BE EVENTUALLY A NEXT MISSION THAT WILL GO AND STUDY PERHAPS EUROPE ROPE PRACTICE, WHICH IS A VERY APPROXIMATELY MOON OF JUPITER AND HAS A LIQUID WATER OCEAN AND IS A PLACE WE COULD LOOK FOR LIFE OR ANY OTHER ASPECT OF THE OVERIAN SYSTEM WHERE WE HAVE MORE SPECIFIC MORE DETAILED QUESTIONS. WE JUST RECENTLY ON PLANETARY TIME SCALES HAD THE NEW HORIZONS MISSION FLY BY PLUTO AND DO THAT FIRST EXPLORATION OF POLLUTE TOE. I HOPE SOMETIME MAYBE IN MY LIFETIME OR THE LIFETIME OF SOME OF THE PEOPLE HERE, WE'LL HAVE AN ORBITER DO THE MORE DETAILED STUDY USING THE INFORMATION THEY LEARNED IN THAT FLY BY. SO IT'S THAT SAME PROGRESSION. I GUESS WE'RE. COUPLE OF QUESTIONS FROM THE WEB. SOMEBODY SENT IN WHY DOES THE GREAT RED SPOT GET COLDER BELOW THE SURFACE AND HOW DOES COOLING WORK IF WARM AT THE TOP AND COOL IN THE MIDDLE. I GETS TO MY FAVORITE ANSWER, WHICH IS NOT ONLY I DON'T KNOW, BUT NOBODY KNOWS, BUT THERE'S SPECULATION AND IF YOU LOOK AT SCIENTIFIC CONFERENCES AND AT SOME OF THE PAPERS THAT ARE COMING OUT, PEOPLE ARE STARTING TO COME UP WITH IDEAS FOR THAT, SO WATCH THIS SPACE, AND THINK ABOUT WHAT HAPPENS IF YOU MIX UP THE ATMOSPHERE AND LOOK AT THE WINDS AND SO FORTH AND YOU CAN COME UP WITH MODELS FOR THE DYNAMICS THAT MIGHT EXPLAIN THAT. I'M NOT GOING TO TRY TO DO THAT HERE TONIGHT BOTH BECAUSE I'M NOT THE RIGHT GUY. THERE'S SOME ATMOSPHERIC SCIENTISTS AND SMART PEOPLE WORKING ON THE PROJECT, WORKING ON EXACTLY THAT PROBLEM AND IF I TRY TO EXPLAIN WHAT THEY'RE DOING I'M LIKELY TOET I WRONG AND THEY'RE NOT QUITE READY TO PUBLISH IT YET AND PROBABLY WOULDN'T LIKE IT IF I SAID THEY ARE SPECULATING ON THIS, THAT OR THE OTHER AND FIND SOMETHING TOMORROW AND HAVE A DIFFERENT ANSWER. I'LL WAIT UNTIL THE PEOPLE WORKING ON IT NOUNS -- ANNOUNCE THAT THEY THINK THEY UNDERSTAND IT. >> ARE THE AURORA ON THE SOUTH POLE WEAKER BECAUSE THEY ARE SO SPREAD OUT. I DON'T KNOW THE ANSWER TO THAT. THAT'S NOT NOBODY KNOWS. IT'S JUST I DON'T ACTUALLY REMEMBER WHETHER THE SOUTHERN AURORA ARE WEAKER OR NOT THAN THE NORTHERN AURORA. SO I CAN MAYBE SEND ME AN EMAIL OR SEND IT TO JPL TO OUR OUTREACH FOLKS, AND I WILL TRY TO GET YOU AN ANSWER TO THAT FOR WHOEVER WAS WATCHG ON LINE. I THINK WE KNOW WHETHER THE NORTHERN AND SOUTHERN AURORAS ARE DIFFERENT STRENGTH. I JUST DON'T PERSONALLY KNOW THE ANSWER OFF THE TOP OF MY HEAD. I GUESS WE'RE OUT OF TIME, HUH? THANKS, EVERYBODY.
