Is Jupiter The Blueprint For How Planets Are Formed? | Naked Science | Spark

[Music] Jupiter vast mysterious the largest planet in the solar system made almost entirely of gas this violent world of 400 mph winds and storms twice the size of Earth may also be the blueprint for how planets are formed and on one of Jupiter's four Gest moons May lie the answer to the most important question of all beneath these vast ice sheets mankind could finally discover if alien life exists cuttingedge space missions are unlocking the secrets of this enigmatic giant [Music] Jupiter in the last 50 years space missions have revealed worlds we never could have imagined from the mountains of Mars to the methane Lakes of Saturn yet One Planet captures our imagination more than any other the greatest of them all Jupiter most of what we know about Jupiter comes from One mission Galileo launched aboard the space shuttle Atlantis in 1989 each new discovery it makes deepens our understanding of Jupiter and its moons it may also uncover evidence of how the solar system itself was [Music] formed 11 times bigger than the earth yet probably without a solid surface Jupiter is a ball of gas and liquid 990,000 M across with lightning superbolts a thousand times more powerful than the strongest strikes on Earth and a ring system like Saturn's but too faint for our telescopes to see the Great Red Spot a single vast storm with 250 mph winds so huge it could swallow the Earth three times over 63 moons orbit this giant Galileo will study four of them IO Europa ganam and Kalisto Each of which would be a a beautiful Target for a space mission in and of itself scientists expect dead and lifeless worlds 500 million miles from the Sun IO Jupiter's closest moon is slightly larger than Earth's Own moon but IO is far from lifeless huge plumes of sulfur dioxide reach hundreds of miles into space very peculiar surface with Reds and yellows someone nicknamed at the pizza Moon ganam the largest moon is a world of scars and Frozen [Music] slush and Europa most mysterious of all its icy surface May hide a liquid ocean below where there's water there could be life a new generation of probes are set to explore the mysteries of the Jovian system Juno Europa Explorer and the underwater probe endurance three missions one goal to At Last reveal the secrets of these alien worlds [Music] before Galileo previous missions could only look from afar in the 1970s and early 80s Pioneer and Voyager gave us tantalizing glimpses of Jupiter and its moons but they raised more questions than they answered how did Jupiter form what powers its vast storms and why are its moons so geologically I Ally active before these questions can be answer the team have to overcome a simple problem Galileo is unable to carry enough fuel to reach its destination NASA Engineers need another way to get to Jupiter and they came up with a brilliant solution we wouldn't go to Jupiter at all would start by going to Venus by flying close to Venus and then Earth using a gravitational slingshot method Galileo steals some energy from the planets to accelerate itself toward its final destination Jupiter when Galileo arrives after a journey of 6 years a small sub probe will detach and Plunge Into the Depths of Jupiter's atmosphere it will have less than an hour to analyze its surroundings before being crushed by the extreme pressure everyone expects Galileo to beam back extraordinary [Music] information as the spacecraft nears the end of its Journey it coincides with a massive comet on a collision course with Jupiter Galileo is in an ideal position to watch it could find Clues to one of the most important questions about Jupiter's history how was it made up until now scientists believe that Jupiter is made from the leftovers from the birth of the Sun a primordial planet frozen in time if so the Sun and Jupiter will have very similar chemical compositions the comet's impact will stir up chemicals from below the surface enabling the team to analyze them and see if the theory holds true they are about to get more than they bargain for I just couldn't believe that we were going to get a chance to see one body in the solar system smash into another one we had an up close and personal view of this unique event the comet's name is Shoemaker Levy 9 or sl9 David Levy is part of the team that first discovers it this was going to be the first time that a comet collided with a planet the first time in recorded history and we had no idea what we were going to learn from it the day arrives on mountain tops and in space more telescopes are trained on the same part of the sky than ever before some scientists believe Jupiter's thick atmosphere will simply swallow the comet Without a Trace others hope the impact will dredge up matter from deep inside the planet giving us vital Clues to its composition we were talking about about the largest biggest planet in the solar system being hit by a tiny Comet most scientists thought it would be a fizzle boy were we lucky as the comet approaches Jupiter's massive gravity tears it to pieces now 20 separate fragments will strike the planet some a mile or more across astronomers across the globe are about to witness something amazing One By One The fragments hit the largest releases as much energy as 300 million atomic bombs a fireball shoots 2,000 Mi above the top of Jupiter's clouds each fragment produces a separate impact Cloud visible as dark black bruises in Jupiter's southern hemisphere they're the size of the Earth the first thing we saw with each impact was either the plume of dust and gas uh as seen by either Galileo or the Hubble Space Telescope the next thing we saw was the formation of the large jet black cloud all over Jupiter's southern hemisphere but the real surprise doesn't come from the clouds it comes from the shock waves the impact send through the upper atmosphere there's only one explanation and to astronomers it's a revelation when uh Sumi 9 crashed into into Jupiter uh it's sort of like a rock going into a pool it sent out waves and the speed of the Waves depends on the amount of water in the atmosphere and uh the speed was faster than we thought and and so we inferred that there was more water than we had expected uh you can sort of see it here just well you can see the ripples spreading out uh and it was the speed at which the circles grew uh that told us there was more water than we expected the discovery is a surprise it means that the composition of Jupiter is different from the Sun it threatens to overturn everything scientists think they know about Jupiter's formation a new theory is needed in 17 months Galileo will arrive and analyze Jupiter's chemistry firsthand only then can the team solve the mystery [Music] one year after the comet sl9 strikes Jupiter Galileo is on its Final Approach there's a lot at stake scientists now know Jupiter may have 10 times more water than previously thought if so they may need to find a whole new explanation for how this strange World formed Galileo's first task will be to directly measure the chemistry of Jupiter's atmosphere including the amount of water Galileo will release a small probe into Jupiter's clouds the probe will also measure the wind speeds and temperatures at different depths to try and explain why the weather is so violent as well as answering the big question is Jupiter a long lost cousin of the Sun or something else [Music] entirely as the probe dives into Jupiter's atmosphere scientists are convinced they'll find the layer of water vapor the comet revealed giving vital Clues to the planet's creation and I even announced a prediction at a scientific meeting uh offering to bet anyone in the audience uh $10 that uh the probe would find uh more than a certain amount of water but instead of water the probe drifts through thin wispy gases it has flown into a downdraft a dry Gap in the clouds where is the water they were expecting to find Jupiter must have both dry areas and wet spots it's not what they expect what they discovered was that Jupiter has some long-term weather patterns spots that move around that they didn't really realize we're there before the Galileo team holds their breath the probe Dives deeper but still there is almost no evidence of water less than an hour of data is about to trigger a revolution in our understanding of how the solar system formed the probe does detect a high proportion of heavier elements like argon Krypton carbon and nitrogen it finds levels 2 to three times higher than found in the sun these elements only condense at extremely low temperatures lower than the temperature found at Jupiter's present position we learned that it uh the atmosphere of Jupiter has chemical constituents that came in with very cold material from the outer solar system for astronomers the discovery is a bombshell the presence of these elements means Jupiter must have formed in a different way than the sun this little probe in one felt swoop showed us that all all of our ideas of how planets were formed were wrong we didn't understand how the planets were made and we didn't understand the early solar system the small probe's discoveries shocked the scientific Community could the giant planet have formed further out in the solar system where it's colder then migrated into its current position or did comets or asteroids bring the heavy elements and water to it after 58 minutes and before the answers become clear the probe Falls silent burning up in Jupiter's inner atmosphere the probe has given scientists some remarkable insights into Jupiter its atmosphere and how it formed but the big question goes unanswered in 2011 a new Mission Juno will attempt to find the answer it will fly closer to Jupiter and gather more information than ever before when Galileo's small probe plunged through Jupiter's atmosphere it hit a dry spot just how much water Jupiter holds is still a mystery Juno will take a different approach using the latest microwave technology a radiometer it will scan for water around the entire Planet scientists hope that finding the missing data will finally solve the mystery of how Jupiter was formed what we're really after with Juno is the ingredients from the ingredients of Jupiter we're going to figure out the recipe and that's what's going to tell us how planets are made with the probe having completed its work it's now time for Galileo 130,000 Mi above Jupiter to turn its attention to another longstanding mystery the planet's weather how can storms three times the size of Earth gets so big and last for over 300 years Jupiter's weather is a mestrom of swirling clouds lightning storms and massive hurricane like vortices for the Galileo team it's a mystery on Earth Earth weather like this is powered by the heat of the Sun but Jupiter is 500 million mil away so there must be some other source of power its most famous feature is the Great Red Spot a storm whose clouds Tower 5 miles above the atmosphere and plunge deep into a chemical soup below the red spot is red uh because of uh the chemicals uh that are trapped there in the center of the red spot uh have been baked and cooked by ultrai light and have turned red astronomers have watched the great red spot for at least 300 years on Earth even the biggest storms only last about 2 weeks so how does the biggest storm in the solar system three times wider than the earth get enough energy to rage unchecked for centuries some scientists believe smaller thunderstorms could hold the answer in order to solve the mystery they had planned to video the Great Red Spot and other smaller storms in action understanding the mechanics of these turbulent weather systems the Galileo team hoped to reveal the source of their power with the High Gain antenna out of action this simple solution won't be possible the team back at Mission Control need a new approach instead of making long continuous movies we made uh three-step movies uh you you watch the red spot you come back a few hours later watch it again and so it's just a three-step movie instead of a continuous movie Galileo homes in on a turbulent area of small white spots caused by what they think is convection or rapidly Rising air if these are storms they will need to find proof they need to locate another of 's most extraordinary features lightning bolts a thousand times more powerful than on Earth but these are only visible at night Jupiter is 11 times bigger than the earth it's it's it's really big if you look at this uh Globe you can see a few intense white colored spots uh small intense white colored spots and uh when we got around behind Jupiter and looked at the night side it was those uh very white colored spots that had the lightning in them and no place else so uh that identified where the thunderstorms were having identified the thunderstorms the next step is to find out whether these small white spots can grow into larger ones Galileo is in the right position at the right time there were some uh White ovals that formed in the 1930s three of them and they had been around for 60 years when suddenly two of them merged Galileo watches as two of the ovals merge to form a larger more powerful Storm 2 years later the third oval also merges forming one large storm in a belt below the great red spot and then it had slowly turned red uh so that it resembled the great red spot but not quite as big nickname the red spot Junior observations of its birth may also help to solve the mystery of where these large storms get their energy Jupiter's storms are cannibalistic they swallow smaller storms this is how something as large as the Great Red Spot came into being it's like a food chain where the big fish eat the little fish and the little fish eat smaller fish and the primary Harvest Harvesters of energy on Jupiter are the little thunderstorms this accounts for the source of all the energy but it doesn't explain why these vast storms last so long conditions on Jupiter are so turbulent that the storm should blow themselves apart on Earth vortices such as tornado soon die out but on Jupiter bices last for years Jupiter is the fastest spinning planet in the solar system turning 22 times faster than Earth ironically scientist John Arno thinks this rapid spin explains the stability of Jupiter storms in rapidly rotating systems vortices can be long lived it's very surprising normally we would think they'd shred themselves they never do what we've learned from these missions is that it's very coherent is that it's very stable when two different colored dyes are mixed in a rotating jar of water the results are startling at first what looks like it's going to be a mess quickly turns out not to be a mess instead we generate two large scale vortices that you'll see are going to be very long lived and coherent and this is the idea in rotating fluid systems when you try to mix them instead of just destroying any D signal or any signal in the fluid you get at Large Scale structures similar to a great red [Music] spot Galileo has revealed why some storms get so big and last so long but scientists are still mystified by Jupiter's most distinguishable characteristic its parallel red white and brown Stripes it was assumed that some are rising gases and others sinking but Galileo finds this may not be [Music] true although its atmosphere is hundreds of miles deep only the surface layer is visible here high velocity winds blow in opposite directions causing these multicolored patterns to be dragged across the surface the colored bands are associated with vertical motion and some of them are mapping out Rising motion and some of them mapping out sinking motion it may be that the rising motion is happens at one level and the sinking motion happens at the same bands but a different level they won't find out until the Juno mission in 2011 looks through the top layer of Jupiter's atmosphere to see just how the planet is spinning is it all spinning as one solid body like the Earth does and and and what we see on the surface is just a bunch of clouds a surface neological layer or is is it inside a little bit like an onion where there's different layers and each layer is spinning in a different direction in a different speed we don't actually know that answer Juno will orbit Jupiter 32 times each lasting 11 days the orbits will pass over Jupiter's North and South Poles shifting longitude with every flyby to scan a new section of the planet for the first time Juno will map Jupiter's entire atmosphere down to a depth of 350 Mi Jupiter's vast weather systems May finally yield their [Music] secrets scientists now realize that the planet's fast rotation maintains Jupiter's Long Live storms but more importantly it also drives Jupiter's most powerful force its magnetic field and we can study that system and compare it with what goes on at Earth and uh learn a lot that will help us understand Earth as well the Earth's magnetic field is generated by the churning motion of molten iron around the core Jupiter is made of gas but at its core the hydrogen is so compressed it acts like liquid metal the magnetic field is is created deep down in the planet where the pressures are so great that the hydrogen in Jupiter has become metallic it actually behaves like a metal and so it's moving around and currents are being created and these manifest themselves onto the magnetic field that surrounds the planet the metallic hydrogen churning in Jupiter's core creates an incredibly powerful magnetic field around the planet it stretches across the solar system to Saturn and Beyond holding in its grasp charg particles and gases it's enormous 50 to 100 times Jupiter's size in going across and the tail is dragged out by the solar wind all the way back to Saturn's orbit Jupiter's magnetic field is the largest object in the solar system if we could see it from Earth with the naked eye it would appear larger than our moon it's also strong enough to divert the constant stream of sulfur emitted from the huge volcanoes on Jupiter's closest Moon IO this material also funnels down toward Jupiter's poles creating a breathtaking light display like Earth Jupiter has Northern and Southern Lights called auroras for the first time Juno will analyze the charged particles and magnetic fields that create these huge displays we fly in close we'll dive underneath the radiation belts and out the other side and we'll fly through the charged particles that bombard and light up the atmosphere with the Northern war the team hopes the study of Jupiter will yield a better understanding of the dynamic processes that create Earth's Own magnetic field but the Jovian system has other secrets to offer its moons are not cold and inactive but dynamic worlds that may hold the answer to the ultimate question is there life beyond Earth the Jovian system is immense 63 moons orbit the planet some large enough to be planets in their own right they are also an enigma small planets and moons usually cool faster so how can these moons be so hot and geologically active now the answer may also contain a clue to the Holy Grail of science is there life on other worlds the four largest moons are ganam Kalisto IO and Europa each one is profoundly different and holds incredible surprises where every time ganam goes around once Europa goes around twice and IO goes around four times it's not a coincidence these moons have evolved into this wonderful Cosmic dance astronomers had expected Jupiter's moons to be cold dead lumps of rock and Ice what Galileo finds are active Dynamic worlds first stop the mysterious ganade the largest moon in the solar system if it orbited the sun in instead of Jupiter astronomers would call it a planet these NASA images show its mountains valleys craters and Frozen lava [Music] flows almost immediately the team finds something extraordinary Galileo's magnetometer is picking up unexpected readings I was flabbergasted the evidence right there that there was a magnetic field uh caused me to say I don't believe it ganam is the only moon in the solar system with its own magnetic field but it's a puzzle the moon should be frozen solid if ganim's got a magnetic field it must have a molten core people had thought that a body of the size of ganade would have cooled off so much in the four billion years that the solar system has been around that it would have been solid all the way through true so we had to change our view of the evolution of ganam the discovery of ganim's magnetic field only deepens the mystery of how planets form something must have happened in ganim's past something catastrophic enough to have heated up this Moon Galileo showed us that ganam is a fascinating world one that's gone through a very complex history a world in its own right but as well as detecting ganim's normal magnetic field Galileo finds a second varying field that's telling us that it's probably also a liquid water ocean within ganam scientists suspect this ocean is buried deep beneath the moon's Rocky crust the team is eager to investigate but Galileo's orbit means it must leave ganam and move on more surprises await next the outermost of Jupiter's four largest moons Kalisto has its own Mysteries it's cold and Rocky the oldest and most heavily cratered landscape in the solar system its surface is scarred with ancient meteorite impacts scientists are perplexed by craters with strange bright rims it seems dark surface material has slipped away exposing the lighter material below nothing like it has ever been seen on Earth so what's the material made of that's slumping down what's the process that's causing it to slump off and it certainly proved to be a much more interesting body upon close examination than we ever thought although the surface is a chilly - 279 de F Galileo's data suggest tests but just like ganam Kalisto can't be frozen solid it detects a very weak magnetic field suggesting it too may have an ocean but the data is confusing other instruments aboard gallileo suggests that 125 Mi beneath its surface Kalisto consists of a mixture of rock metal and ice right down to its core it's another mystery the standard theory of how moons and planets form says that they should heat up when the material they're made of first joins together the heat should then separate the Rock from the ice strangely on Kalisto it hasn't that would mean it never got really hot in there how do you make such a large Moon and not have it heat up we still don't really understand kisto like so much of the Jovian system Kalisto raises more questions than it answers we don't know what's going on inside the moon we don't even know what material covers its surface the story of Jupiter's next moon is equally bizarre IO is the same size as our moon and is the closest of Jupiter's four large moons it is the most volcanically active body in the solar system with over 400 volcanoes up to 124 M across if you could have a bird's eye view of AO it would be really extraordinary you would see these uh plumes that are are hundreds of miles high these enormous lava flows and the big lava laks just boiling and bubbling away on the surface that is all really strange and has this colors of a pepperoni pizza volcanoes constantly reshape io's surface Galileo's pictures are totally different from the ones Voyager sent back some 20 years before but how can a landscape changed so dramatically in such a short space of time huge craters seem to come and go the cause of their disappearance seems to be giant plumes of sulfur Rich gases shooting around 200 m above the surface we concluded that it was the plumes that were depositing fine material on the surface and actually erasing these craters over long periods of time but as with Jupiter's other moons there is a further mystery this much volcanic activity requires an immense amount of heat but where does it come from IO 500 million miles from the sun should be too cold but clearly it's not could the answer be gravity Jupiter's gravitational field keeps IO in orbit but as it goes around it passes on the inside of Jupiter's other moons their gravity pulls IO in the opposite direction that distorts io's shape it's the Distortion that creates the heat as Jupiter's large moons orbit around the planet they're pulled and pushed and squeezed as they go around in their orbits and this creates heat friction and causes melting within IO of the rock to power its volcanoes it raises Tides onio very much like the moon raises tides on the oceans on Earth on the onio the whole surface goes up by over 300 ft can you imagine what it would be like on earth like here in Los Angeles if the crust of the Earth was Rising 300 ft it's an astonishing Discovery a world shaped by forces so violent it's pulled apart like taffy yet amazing as it sounds of all Jupiter's moons IO may not be the strangest the next moon on Galileo's path Europa its surface is covered in strange geological shapes and parallel tracks that cut across the ice it's an ice world with an extraordinary secret could it Harbor the ingredients for [Music] life images of Jupiter's moon Europa from earlier missions reveal a pinkish white world but Galileo finds fewer meteor craters than expected that means something is erasing the craters after they form because europa's surface is ice scientists believe water could be welling up from below this moon is so intriguing the team wants a better look but to do so means spending more time at Europa than planned the original schedule called for only three flybys of the Moon Europa but the evidence was so compelling that it compelled uh the mission to be extended in length and to go back several more times Galileo's first job is to image the moon in Greater detail the question is how active is europa's surface are the processes that erase impact craters fast or or glacially slow the team Begins by assuming the process could take billions of years that changes fast I'm listening to them discussing the age of Europa surface dropping oh well maybe it's a couple billion years old and then the next fly by well it might even be a 100,000 years old uh and then the next fly by it may be currently active while measuring europa's magnetic field Galileo uncovers another mystery as the moon orbits Jupiter its magnetic field shifts Europa must have a conductive layer which allows Jupiter's magnetic field to pass through it there is only one thing that could cause this and it's a big surprise for the Galileo team we were able to interpret these signatures as being produced by a global ocean beneath the surface of the ice scientists believe europa's ocean is vast it covers the whole globe to a depth of 100 Mil making it the largest body of liquid water in the solar system if so the team must first address a fundamental problem europa's surface temperature can reach-2 200° F why doesn't such a huge ocean so far from the Sun freeze astronomers think the answer may be the same one that drives the volcanoes on iO Jupiter's gravity stretches and compresses the moon creating heat within it's the heat that keeps the surface in constant motion this could also explain some unusual features found on Europa Galileo images showed that ridges crisscross the surface of Europa these are bizarre features that travel across the surface for up to 1,000 kilm and typically in pairs that is a ridge with a depression in the middle and another Ridge these are bizarre features like nothing we see on the earth at first these ridges are a puzzle but researchers soon come up with a solution planetary scientist Bob papalardo reproduces the effect with ice blocks in the lab as Europa is flexed by Jupiter's gravity its surface Bend bends and cracks and makes fractures through the ice well as it's squeezed and bent the ice slides back and forth along these fractures now this can create heat as these blocks move by one another and that heat can warm the ice on either side of the block and that warm ice Rises up to form these strange ridges that we see these tracks that seem to go across the tundra of your Galileo reveals a world in constant motion evidence of heat hidden below the ice flows of material on the surface are possible evidence of ice volcanoes or Geyers brown red stains stretch across the ice where it has cracked open and salty material from the interior has welled Up From Below we see pits and spots and domes on the surface of Europa that might be related to the rise of blobs of warm ice that move up through the shell sort of like a lava lamp heat from the interior of the Moon may even drive hydrothermal vents in the ocean on earth hydrothermal vents on the sea Flor Are hotpots For Life Galileo's data also suggests there's carbon dioxide Frozen on europa's Surface possibly welling up from the ocean below if so the find is huge because CO2 is vital for life does this mean there's life on Europa I'm in the camp that where there's water there's a very good chance that there's life and where there's materials for that life to use and on Europa we seem to have the materials and we have the water if we search and find life within the ocean of Europa that'll be an enormous leap in understanding whether we're alone in the universe or whether life may be everywhere the search for life is an irresistible lure scientists are desperate to go back to Europa and near the end of the next decade they hope to launch a groundbreaking mission to orbit the Moon the Europa Explorer will take the first steps toward answering the biggest question of all is there life on other [Music] worlds it will survey the ice on europa's Surface as well as analyzing its structure it will search for spots where we could one day break through to the ocean beneath we need to measure the gravity in detail we need to do radar studies we need to look at the surface composition we need to understand the geology we need to understand that tidal flexing that heats the interior and causes that thick lay of ice to flex with the tidal forces the Explorer's main tool is radar it will give scientists a 3D map of europa's crust this will tell them just how thick the icy shell is how far beneath the surface the ocean is if it's a global ocean um how deep it is how how thick the ocean layer is these are crucial questions once scientists know how thick the ice is is the next step is to work out how to get beneath it and that will mean a completely new Mission a probe that will not only orbit Europa but land and explore its subsurface ocean endurance is already at work in Antarctica a robotic submarine it's the first of a new breed of underwater probes that can also operate under the ice the aim is to create a vehicle that needs no instructions from home endurance must make decisions all by itself every vehicle we've sent to space so far has the ability to talk back to Earth get commands from Earth and have people in the loop this will be a whole new ball game and it's something that we're going to be able to test in Antarctica endurance is currently investigating a lake hidden under nearly 15 ft of ice in Antarctica perhaps one day a vehicle like this will search for life on Europa but first it has to get through the ice that thick ice cover takes a lot of energy to melt ice people don't usually appreciate that but we'll need some kind of nuclear uh system that will melt that ice and it will take weeks perhaps months to get through that ice we might imagine a Lander spacecraft that melts its way all the way down to the ocean and explores what's really down [Music] there the discovery of Life on another world would be one of the greatest fines of all time we're not talking about fish or whales or Loch Ness monster we're talking about microbes could there be tiny single celled organisms within the ocean of Europa I mean if you just find bacteria it would be fascinating but who knows you know maybe there's something more sophisticated something swimming around who knows even the simplest life forms would have profound implications if life exists in the ocean of Europa that would tell us that life probably exists almost anywhere there's a water Rich environment that would be an amazing [Music] Discovery Jupiter and its moons have already transformed our understanding of our place in the solar system now New Missions to Europa May finally prove that life on Earth is not unique and if there's life on Two Worlds then why not on many Jupiter and its moons May one day give us hope we will find not just life but intelligence Out Among the [Music] Stars [Music] for

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Keywords: Jupiter's composition, NASA discoveries, Spark, astronomical discoveries, breathtaking cosmos, celestial bodies, celestial marvels, gas giants, mystery of creation, planet discovery, planet dynamics, planet mysteries, planet origins, planet science, planetary development, planetary dynamics, planetary formation, planetary mysteries, planetary studies, solar system secrets, universe exploration

Id: eLzSTVcHXuo

Length: 46min 14sec (2774 seconds)

Published: Fri May 03 2024